'India's secret N-submarine project nearing completion'

[Screaming Skull]

Nuclear Powerplant Design:

The most important part of the submarine is the nuclear powerplant. Very little information is available concerning the powerplant. Certainly the time spent on the leased Soviet nuclear submarine provided valuable design information. However the radiation problems encountered caused much concern.

Uranium in three different levels of enrichment is suitable for use in naval nuclear reactors. The US uses highly enriched uranium (>90%) in its reactors. The use of this level of enrichment ensures long reactor lifetimes.

Soviet submarines are known to have used both medium and low level enriched uranium. Recent reactor designs incorporate highly enriched uranium in the core. The use of low level enriched uranium by China and France has also been described.

At the present time, India does not appear to have the capability of separating large amounts (hundreds of kilograms per year) of highly enriched uranium. Both their centrifuge plants and their experimental laser isotope separation facility appear more suited to low level enrichment. An additional indication that these facilities are not up to full capacity is the sale last year of low enriched uranium by China. This uranium is destined for India's commercial power reactors and would be subject to international safeguards.

Recent evidence seems to indicate that India has the capability to produce the required highly enriched (>90%)uranium needed for the submarine reactor core.

It would also be more economical for India to use low level enriched uranium in its experimental naval reactor. (32)According to P.K. Chari, the former director of the Institute of Defense Studies and Analyses (IDSA) and currently Professor of national Security Studies at the Centre for Policy Research, New Delhi enriched (20%) uranium would find use in a reactor to power submarines. However the use of low level enriched uranium also poses problems. Fuel changes to replace fissioned uranium are needed more often. This poses particular problems for India as there are no suitable facilities capable of handling radioactive materials.

Two different type of reactors would have also been considered. The water-cooled water-moderated reactor (PWR) was designed by BARC and is believed based on Soviet design information obtained form the leased submarine. Some information is known about Soviet reactor design. Naval reactor cores have been described as having 248-252 fuel assemblies depending upon type of reactor. There may be up to a few tens of fuel rods per assembly.

A second liquid metal cooled reactor was probably looked at by Kalpakkam. The pressurized water-cooled reactor is the far better choice and appears to be the reactor chosen for the nuclear powered submarine.

It is now known that China used information obtained about naval ship reactors to help design their first submarine reactor. Information was openly obtained about the West German reactor used on the Otto Hahn and the Soviet reactor used on the Lenin. This information would have surely been available to India.

Indian sources also mention information about a Japanese naval nuclear reactor (Mutsu) and its suitability for use in a submarine.

Most PWR fuel is uranium-aluminum dispersed fuel (cermet) in steel or zirconium cladding. (36)Indian scientists from BARC and the Indian Institute of Technology have published a number of recent papers describing the uranium-aluminum and uranium-zirconium phases.

Enrichment of the PWR core has varied from 21% to as high as 45% for later version cores. A typical first generation core contained approximately 50 kg of U-235 per reactor.

India is very experienced in the design and use of cermet fuel for small reactors. As cited earlier the uranium-aluminum phase diagram has been detailed and the effect of additives such as silicon has been examined. Both Aspara and Zerlina are known to have used medium enriched uranium.

Aluminum clad uranium fuel elements are also in use in both the Cirus and Dhruva reactors. The uranium used in both of these reactors is of the unenriched type and is produced at the Uranium Metal Plant located at Trombay. Fabrication of the fuel elements is done at the Fuel Fabrication Division of BARC. Experience gained in the fabrication of these fuel elements would be invaluable in the design of submarine fuel elements.

If a cermet or aluminum clad uranium is not used then enriched uranium dioxide clad in zircaloy fuel elements may be considered. The Nuclear Fuel Complex at Hyderabad produces zircaloy clad uranium dioxide for both pressurized heavy water reactors and boiling water reactors. Both natural and low level enriched uranium dioxide are used at this facility.

The reactor and its containment vessel are reported to weigh some 600 tonnes. The pressurized water reactor (PWR) will use enriched uranium in the form of plate-type fuel elements.

The steam turbine design and test facilities for use with the nuclear reactor have been set up at Vizag.

Consideration had been given to using a mixed plutonium-uranium oxide fuel in the form of small diameter pins, but that was dropped in favor of enriched uranium in the form of plate-type fuel elements.

Core design, neutronics, power distribution coefficients and criticality calculations all are performed by BARC. Calculations are done in-house using codes developed by both BARC and Kalpakkam scientists. A locally designed supercomputer (PARAM) using parallel processing computers may aid in these efforts, although American and Japanese supercomputers are available for use. (42)Techniques have also been developed at the Advanced Numerical Research and Analysis Group to improve processing speeds of computers by exploiting parallel processing.

According to Kotta Subba Rao Indian nuclear scientists under the guidance of Drs. Ramanna, Srinivasan, and Iyengar have been trying since 1971 to build a nuclear submarine reactor. Three different reactor designs were evaluated. The first was rejected in late 1976, the second in 1979 and the third in 1981.

Problems have existed in the design of certain safety features. An important item in submarine nuclear reactors is the design of the control rod insertion and withdrawal mechanism. This may have been responsible for the radiation leaks aboard the leased Soviet submarine which lead to the reported death of at least one Indian scientist. It is known that India tried to buy a rod worth minimizer ((RWM) used by reactor operators to guide and monitor the proper sequences for the withdrawal and insertion of control rods. The sale was denied.

The control rod technology for use with the rod worth minimizer has been well developed by India. They are able to adequately separate hafnium from zirconium and have also evaluated the worth of hafnium as compared to cadmium for use in control rods. The use of liquid poison systems has also been evaluated.

It has also been reported that the Russian submarine-design bureau Rubin is cooperating in developing the nuclear submarine's 190 MW PWR. Russian engineers have been working with DRDO on the design since 1991.

Even thought India possesses much experience in reactor design and fuel fabrication, construction of the reactor does not appear to gone much past the land based prototype stage. The major holdups appear to be the lack of a suitable harbour facility for handling radioactive materials, lack of an adequate supply of highly enriched uranium, reactor integration and design problems and financial considerations.

The PWR failed tests at Kalpakkam in November and December 1995. The failures were believed to be caused by "several integration and fabrication problems" that have yet to be solved.

In June of 1996 it was reported that the program suffered further setbacks following additional failed tests of the reactor. Problems in fabricating the containment vessel have also occurred.

In July of 1996 it was reported by Delhi All India Radio that "India has successfully developed a nuclear-powered submarine for the navy. The submarine named the Advanced Technology Vehicle was tested successfully somewhere in the East coast recently."

Underwater tests on the reactor were scheduled for late 1996 but are on hold till problems encountered during the earlier tests are resolved.

 

[Screaming Skull]

Communication and Intelligence Support Systems:

Covert communications with the submerged submarine are of utmost importance both in war and peacetime. Since the early 1980's India has been involved in research and development of advanced means for communicating with submerged submarines.

The VLF communication station was stated to be operable in 1988. Because this kind of signal can only penetrate seawater to a depth of 8-10 meters alternate sources of communication have been looked. Some work in the ELF area has been done but not much is known about this research. Work in these areas is carried out by National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras and Bangalore, and the Defense Electronics Applications Laboratory, Dehra Dun (also known as the Instruments Research and Development Establishment).

In 1986 a paper entitled "Nuclear Hardened Radio Communication to Submarine: A Review" was published by researchers from the Defense Electronics Applications Laboratory, Dehra Dun. This paper reviewed and summarized the effects of nuclear radiation and EMP on VLF/ELF communication systems. They concluded that "ELF radio communication is the only such reliable means which can withstand the effect of nuclear holocaust and is least disturbed by the EMP generated by nuclear explosion". EMP effects have been studied by Indian researchers and further details are presented in the section on survivability.

Laser communications were considered vital due to higher transmission rates and the ability to penetrate the ocean down to depths of 500-700 meters. VLF was claimed to be able to penetrate to depths of 8-10 meters with ELF penetrating to depths of around 100 meters.

In April 1983 a two day conference was held at the Instruments Research and Development Establishment, Dehra Dun to discuss Ocean Optics and Laser Communications. Papers were presented by researchers from both the national Institute of Oceanography, Goa and the Instruments Research and Development Establishment, Dehra Dun. Topics discussed included: optical properties of seawater, design considerations for laser based underwater optical systems, underwater imaging and photography, laser sources, underwater ranging, modulation methods for lasers, use of fiber optics in underwater communications, applications of acoustical holography.

By the early 1980's work had started on a laser communication link from the air and ground. This work was a joint project carried out at both the Ocean Engineering Centre and the Laser Communication Laboratory, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras. By 1985 an experimental facility for measuring the attenuating effects of the ocean surface on laser beam penetration was already in operation. This study concluded "that ocean waves are not a serious in a laser communication link, as long as the laser has sufficient power to penetrate the atmosphere twice and penetrate ocean water for a distance upto several hundreds meters". The project was headed by Dr. Ashok Jhunjhunwala with assistance provided by Dr. Varun Jeoti.

Continued interest in these areas is indicated by two papers published in the early 1990's. (53)A 1991 paper by researchers from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore presents a state of the art review of the origin of the blue-green window in the attenuation spectrum of ocean waters. Various physical mechanisms which contribute to the formation of this window were described. Measured values of attenuation coefficients for ocean waters collected from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal were presented. The region of minimum attenuation for pure particle-free sea water was found to be 450-500 nm.

A January 1993 article by researchers from the Defense Electronics Applications Laboratory, Dehradun reviewed the area of submarine communications and stated "in the near future the blue-green laser is going to be the vital means of sending large information to a submarine operating much deeper (500-700 m) with unrestricted speed. The depths and speed cited indicate a nuclear-powered submarine.

The importance of satellite communication and imagery programs to the submarine project has not been publicly addressed. Indian analysts have noted the military value of imagery: "With satellite imagery technologies improving towards finer resolutions and even becoming commercially available, very few of our military secrets are safe. In the future it will be difficult to enter into meaningful force reduction agreements with China or Pakistan unless India is able to match the missile capabilities of China as well as the information acquisition capabilities of both China and Pakistan through satellites and intelligence sharing."

The Ministry of Defense recently suspended all civilian uses of the IRS-1C satellite to "monitor without distraction all nuclear and ballistic missiles deployed by China and possibly Pakistan near India's border." Whether this information can be downlinked to a submerged submarine in real time has not been disclosed.

India's Kilo class submarines are reported to be equipped with a HF/VHF intercept array, a Quad Loop DF system, and a Squid Head ESM system. The 209/1500 class submarines are reported to be equipped with the Phoenix II ESM system produced by ARGO Systems. It is of interest to note that ARGO Systems provided the same type of system to Pakistan for use on thier destroyers.

It has been reported that Indian submarines have been have been used to spy on Thailand. And during the Gulf War Australian ship movements were reportly monitored.

 

[Screaming Skull]

Sonar Systems:

Even thought the sonar systems supplied by the West Germans for the conventional submarines were state of the art, Indian naval authorities felt the need to develop and test their own sonar systems.

Early development work was carried out at the Naval Science and Technological Laboratory (NSTL), Visakhapatnam. Vice-Admiral B.G. Mudholkar was the director of NSTL at that time. Captain M.K. Mukherjee supplied technical support in these efforts.

These early efforts were directed towards the characterization of flow-induced noise inside a sonar dome. This flow-induced was found to be largely responsible for limiting a ship's sonar performance at high speeds. As early as 1981 the importance of flow-induced noise had been recognized.

Frequency zooming techniques for high spectrum analysis have been developed by researchers at the Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory, Cochin. Support in the development of algorithms has been provided by Osmania University, Hyderabad.

Underwater acoustics have been studied by the Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory, Cochin and the National Institute of Oceanography, Goa. The following results were presented: "The methodology and software developed to reconstruct a vertical sound speed profile as a part of studies on marine acoustic modeling, using the ray path lengths and the travel time perturbutations in tomographic layers are outlined. For a stratified ocean, considering the range independent nature of the medium, geophysical inverse techniques are employed to reconstruct the sound speed profile. The reconstructed profile for a six layer ocean, with five energetic modes, is in good agreement with that of the assumed profile thereby indicating the usefulness of the model. The effect of noise caused by the excursions of the source and receiver moorings; when expressed in terms of travel-time differences, results in the sound speed changes up to 0.1 per cent."

An underwater magnetic survey has been reported on by the Naval Science and Technological Laboratory, Visakhhapatnam. In addition sound-speed as a function of temperature at different depths in the Bay of Bengal was characterized by the National Institute of Oceanography, Goa. The following details were provided: "Through regression analysis, temperature-dependent relationships are developed to predict sound-speed at discrete depths in the Bay of Bengal, thereby demonstrating the feasibility of sound-speed prediction from polynomial expressions for temperature disregarding salinity variations. A separate regression equation is developed for the historical sound-speed and temperature data at standard depths up to 250 m. At specific depths and in the given geographic area in the Bay of Bengal (5-8 degree N, 90-93 degree E), polynomials of temperature proved to be a precise way to predict sound speed."

Underwater transducers are produced by the Armament Research and Development Establishment, Pune. The underwater omnidirectional transducers are 60 mm hollow spherical elements fabricated from lead zirconate titanate type-4 material. Complete production information is provided in a 1991 article.

Additional support in the area of underwater acoustic transducer analysis is provided by the Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory, Cochin. (64)A recent article described several techniques of analysis for underwater acoustic transducers. Both computer and mathematical modelling was provided in this analysis.

The Centre for Applied Research in Electronics, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi has been involved in sonar system development for over twenty years. This center evolved from the School of Radar Studies. Initial small scale work began in 1971. A 1993 paper reviews a sonar system for surface ships that uses technology developed during the 1980-84 period. The study involved the development of an omnidirectional sonar receiver. The then director of the Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory, Dr. V.K. Aatre had overall responsibility for this activity. Shipboard trials were carried out in the 1984-5 time period.

Lastly two reviews were published in 1993 providing details on sonar and ASW sensors and towed array sonar systems. The review on ASW sensors by Dr. V.K. Aarte, the former director of the Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory, now at the Defense Research and Development Organization, New Delhi.

 

[Screaming Skull]

Weapons Development and Support:

Since the initial Indian submarine design was to be based on the Russian Charlie II cruise missile carrying nuclear submarine, it is logical that an indigenious designed cruise missile would be employed on that submarine.

Later design studies may have shown the superior deterence value advantage of a ballistic missile carrying submarine and hence reported work on that type of missile design.

The Sagarika has been identified as either a submarine launched cruise or ballistic missile with a range of 300 km.

The following details were provided in the Asian Defense Journal (5/95): "India is testing scale models of a submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) Sagarika in wind tunnels at the Aeronautical Defense Establishment (ADE), a part of DRDO. The project initiated some three years ago (1992), is aimed at building a SLBM which will be carried on an indigenous nuclear submarine. The missile, which in some respects will be similar to Prithvi, will be able to hit targets as far away as 300 km."

In early April 1996 the Indian navy announced plans to acquire three locally produced missile systems. Among those identified

was the large submarine-launced ballistic missile called "Sagarika". The project was stated to have begun in 1994 and is scheduled for completion in 2005.

Other defense sources have said that the missile is the "big one" and it is said to be the most technologically advanced program to be developed by DRDO. The same article stated that the missile is reported to be in the final stages of scale model testing and propulsion mechanisms are in the process of being developed.

The following details are provided for the cruise missile: "India is also working on a cruise missile which would carry a 450 kg warhead and would be guided by a navigation system similar to the US Global Positioning System (GPS). India has already developed a computer programme which would allow engineers to calculate the pressure of aerodynamic forces on the missile's surface during its flight. This is a very complex process and its involves development of an optimum surface design of the missile to counter the air flow. Indian engineers are now trying to develop an engine and a guidance system for the cruise missile."

A number of recent articles have described the Sagarika as a sea-launced cruise missile. In addition work is proceeding on a new long-range anti-ship missile similar in design to the French Exocet. The missile's name is believed to be Koral.

Mention has also been made that India is in the final stages of development of another ICBM system (Surya) with a reported range of between 12,000 and 20,000 km.

Work on these systems is being carried at the Defense Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL), Hyderabad and the Research Centre, Immarat located 6 km from DRDL. While the Aeronautical Defense Establishment is located at Bangalore.

Development of a submarine launched ballistic missile is a very complicated undertaking. Among the major problems associated with such a system are the effects of water in the nozzle on motor ignition. This effect caused the recent failure of two out of three flights of the US Trident II missile. If a highly technologically advanced country such as the United States has had problems in the design and testing of submarine launched ballistic missiles, for a country such as India the task may appear unsurmountable.

India has also experienced problems in the area of stage separation. This problem has been experienced by SLV-3, ASLV, and the Agni. Modification in designs have helped solve part of the problem but difficulties are still being encountered.

Maraging steel components for missile projects are produced at Mishra Dhatu Nigam Ltd., Midhani or at its Hindustan's Aerospace Division located in Bangalore. Aluminum alloy components are manufactured by the Bharat Aluminum Company. Both aluminum alloy and maraging steel components are known to be formed by flow-forming. Research in the area of spin and shear forming is carried out at the National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi and both the Punjab Engineering College and the Delhi College of Engineering.

Solid propellant research and development is performed at many locations throughout India. The Indian Institute of Technology, Bangalore, University of Gorakhpur, Gorakhpur, Bhararathidasan University, Tiruchapalli are examples of universities performing research in this area. Military Research is conducted at the Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory, Chandigaarth and Explosives Research and Development Laboratory, Pune. Civilian space research is conducted by the Indian Space Research Organization, with the fuel complex located at Thumba.

India also produces such important propellant ingredients as Hydroxylterminated-polybutadiene (HTPB) at the National Organic Chemical Industries Limited facility and ammonium perchlorate is produced at Alwaye.

Knowledge gained from the development of the Agni technology development program will be of use in designing a submarine launched ballistic missile. The most important technology transferred over would be the carbon/carbon heat shield and re-entry vehicle design.

The Agni re-entry vehicle has been recently described. According to the article: "The 4.6 metres long re-entry vehicle is designed to withstand a high heat flux and temperatures beyond 3,000 degrees centigrade during re-entry. It is divided in five sections and all of them are based on a unique all-composite, twin layered filament wound structure. The inner carbon-epoxy layer withstands structural loads and the outer carbon-phenolic, and in the case of Agni-III carbon-carbon layer acts as an ablative thermal protective system that ensures the re-entry vehicle inside temperature remains at 50 degrees centigrade even thought flow field temperatures may be 3,000 degrees centigrade".

The aerodynamic control surfaces of the re-entry vehicle have been modified and tested to provide terminal manoeuvering during re-entry. This modification would only be needed if the re-entry vehicle was being designed to defeat a ballistic missile defense system.

The accuracy of this blunt nosed re-entry vehicle is not totally suitable for a first strike weapon. It is more suitable for use in a counterforce mode as a second strike weapon for the destruction of cities or other high value targets than as a first strike weapon.

Carbon/carbon technology is known to play an important in both missile and cruise missile development. Under Dr. O.P. Bahl research is carried out at the Carbon Fiber and Composites group, National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi. Support is provided by the Chemistry Department of the Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi.

Research on the development of oxidation resistant carbon/carbon composites for use in advanced cruise missile engines is carried out at G.H. Patel Institute of Material Science, Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar and the Carbon Technology Unit and Materials Division of the National Physical Laboratory , New Delhi. In 1995 a program for manufacturing carbon/carbon composites was set up near Hyderabad by the Technology, Information, Forecasting and Assesment Council (TIFAC) under the Department of Science and Technology.

Realizing the importance of carbon/carbon, Indian graduate and post-graduate were dispatched to study at major universities throughout the world. Students have attended the following universities: Centre de recherche Paul Pascal, CNRS, Universite Bordeaux, France, Institut fur Chemische Technik, Universitat Karlsruhe, Germany, Research Laboratory of Engineering Materials, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan. Students have also attended the following universities located in the United States: Georgia Technological Research Institute (GTRI), Dartmouth College, and the University of California, San Diego.

At present the Agni IRBM uses a strap-down guidance system. This system offers a lower cost alternative to an Inertial Guidance System, however it suffers from a lack of accuracy. Before deploying a SLBM an improved guidance system will need to be developed. The use of a radio-correction guidance system has been reportly deployed on the Prithvi missile. Whether such technology can be transferred over to the SLBM project remains to be seen.

Lastly work has been conducted on the design of earth penetrating warheads. This work was carried out at the Armament Research and development Establishment, Pune. Computer codes have been developed which model various aspects of warhead and target interaction.

 

[Screaming Skull]

Survivability Issues:

Modelling the effects of underwater explosions has been carried out at the Centre for Aeronautical Systems Studies and Analysis, Bangalore and the University of Gorakhpur, Gorakhpur. Actual explosive studies are believed to be carried out at the Institute of Armament Technology, Pune and the Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory, Cochin.

Computer aided warship design and stability studies are carried out at Institute of Armament Technology, Pune with related signature analysis work carried out at the Naval Science and Technological Laboratory, Visakhapatnan.

The effects of a nuclear explosion upon submarine communication were analyzed and reviewed by the Defense Electronics Applications Laboratory, Dehra Dun. In their conclusions they stated that ELF radio communications is the reliable most means of withstanding a nuclear explosion. Actual electromagnetic pulse studies (EMP) are conducted at the Department of High Voltage Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Bangalore.

Additional support is provided by the Electronics and Radar Development Establishment, Bangalore, EETF, ENTEST Lab, Research Centre Imarat, Hyderabad, and the Electronics Research and Development Centre, Calcutta.

Conventional Alternatives:

In the event India does not go forward with the nuclear-powered submarine project conventional alternatives must be considered.

Advanced technologies such as Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) are now becoming available. Air Independent Propulsion has been stated "to provide only enough power to maintain a submarines hotel load and to provide enough headway to enable the submarine to manoeuvre. High speed still requires the use of diesels and a snorkel".

It is of interest to note that Admiral Vijai Signh Shekhawat, Chief of the Indian Naval Staff stated in an interview with Jane's Defense Weekly that "There are no plans to install an Air Independent Propulsion system or to acquire submarine-launced cruise missiles".

Advanced fuel cells are also being developed for use on the German Type 212 submarine.

Both technologies are available through the German Submarine Corporation (GSC) for export.

In August of 1996 it was confirmed by Gennady Makarov, deputy chief designer of the Central Design Bureau for Marine Engineering Rubin, that Russia had offered to sell the Kilo Type 636 submarine to India. Terms and conditions of the offer have not been announced.

In February of this it was reported that India intended to import two additional submarines from Russia and plans to build two hunter-killer class submarines under German license.

Pakistan is now scheduled to receive modern Agosta-90B type submarines from France. These submarines will be equipped with an MESMA (Module d'Energie Sous Marine) Air Independent Propulsion System (AIPS) and will carry SM-39 Exocet missiles.

The implications for the Indian Navy of this scheduled acquisition was the subject of two recent articles written by Rahul Roy-Chaudhury (Research Officer at the Indian Institute of Defense and Strategic Analysis). He concluded "that the Indian Navy's quantitative superiority will come into play against this newest threat... and that the range and extent of India's growing maritime interests will always necessitate a far larger naval force than that of Pakistan."

His conclusion was: "At present, the new advanced technology submarines to be acquired simply represent a modernization of Pakistan's submarine force. These boats will not tilt the naval balance in the Indian subcontinent in Pakistan's favour. They, however, represent a decrease in the Indian Navy's edge over the Pakistani Navy in warfare. This could be rectified by some long-term planning on the part of the Indian Navy emphasizing the gamut of its ASW forces."

The shallow water threat posed by conventional submarines has been evaluated. The author concluded that the threat while serious is overrated and can be countered by the effective use of ASW forces or modern nuclear hunter-killer submarines.

Aware of the underwater arms race taking place in Asia and elsewhere, the United States is undertaking efforts to introduce a global ban on the sale of advanced diesel electric submarines. At the same time western navies are developing advanced counter measures to these same submarines.

Alternatives to nuclear power are available but they come at a cost. To counter the threat posed by Pakistan conventional technology will still suffice but in order to counter the growing threat posed by China, India will be forced to seriously consider nuclear powered alternatives.

 

[Screaming Skull]

Political Assessments:

Construction of a facility for handling radioactive materials

near a city such as Bombay may present problems. The population may not react kindly to such a facility.

It is also relevant to mention that the port facilities at Vishakapatanam are believed to have been included in the strategic targeting list developed by the Pentagon.

The case of Captain Kota Subha Rao will be discussed. Captain Rao was jailed for 20 months due to differences in his perceptions and those of the official scientific group working on the naval nuclear reactor. Differences in the ranks over the safety of nuclear power exist, but it appears that the establishment has taken extreme efforts to silence any opposition.

Captain Kota Subba Rao has been involved in nuclear projects since the early 1970's. (99)During the early 1970's he was involved in experiments on the PURNIMA reactor. The PURNIMA reactor played a vital part in the development of India's first nuclear device. The reactor which used re-processed plutonium from the 40 MW Cirus reactor provided basic data regrading neutron multiplication factors, effectiveness of reflectors, critical mass assembly and many other device relevant factors.

He was also involved in the design review process for three submarine reactors. Based partially upon his recommendations, the first design was dropped in late 1976, the second in 1979 and the third in 1981.

He further claims that because of this design review in 1980 Indira Gandhi refused money for building a prototype reactor.

He was also involved in a disagreement between the Indian Prime Minister and Dr. Ramanna over computer calculations provided by Captain Rao concerning the prototype of the third design. Dr. Ramanna lost out and was shunned by the then Prime Minister. These reactor calculations formed the basis of Captain Rao's PhD thesis which was classified Top Secret by the Indian Government.

During the mid 1980's Captain Rao was jailed on charges that he was carrying out of the country various classified documents relating to India's nuclear submarine program. Among the documents he was carrying was a copy of his PhD thesis. After being jailed for 20 months the courts released him after finding nothing incriminating against him. His design for a reactor was shown to be a failure. French trials of a similar design were published and shown not to work.

Despite routine disclaimers that: "India does not have any regional or international ambitions and the country's naval capability is being only tailored to guard the long coastline and the exclusive economic zone", the strategic direction of all these developments is clear and would explain the interest revealed by India in uranium enrichment technology.

According to a 1992 study authored by Brigadier Vijai K. Nair, VSM (Retired) a nuclear triad capability is the most appropriate defense alternative for India. He states that "in so far as China is concerned, most of the targets are beyond the range of IRBM's. As India's policy has to be restricted to delivery systems with a reach of the IRBM, she will have to employ SSBN based SLBM's to tackle the deterrence requirements against China initially."

Under geo-strategic imperatives he states: Geographically, the direct threat which impinges on our security emanates from China and Pakistan, two countries with common borders to India on her North and West. The other threat finds credence by its presence along the extensive coast line which juts out into the Indian Ocean. The striking features of such a position are quite apparent.

These are:

- Proximity of hostile weapon systems would so reduce the time of flight that a strategy based on the need for decision making and response time cannot be applied in ensuring the security of the sub-continent. In other words a major input for strategy formulation is India's susceptibility to a pre- emptive strike.

- This capability to pre-empt Indian nuclear weapons systems would radically effect the decision on the quantity of warheads which would need to be deployed to form a viable force in such a scenario. To say the least, a meaningful nuclear strategy would become dependent on deploying a significant incremental factor to the warhead stockpile to counteract the counter force potential that exists with a hostile China to destroy the complete system with impunity.

- It would also dictate the deployment of nuclear war heads mounted on submarines to ensure survival of a viable force to counter enemy strikes thus creating the only feasible second strike capability to deter a pre-emptive.

- This in turn would automatically mean realizing the ability to field short and intermediate range delivery systems which entails a bifurcation in development thrusts.

- The imminence of the threat to pre-emptive decapitation of the leadership would generate command and control problems quite dissimilar to those of the United States and Soviet Union. Besides posing problems of suitably locating command facilities India would be constrained to give a much greater weightage to doctrines effecting release policies. This thrust need not necessarily follow existing philosophy and, would in all probability, have an increased effect on destabilization.

- In view of the pre-emptive quotient of a nuclear environment on the sub-continent, Indian strategy would have to place a greater emphasis on 'second strike' capability. Such a potential would probably not suffice if it were constrained to the Indian land mass. The need to analyze this in greater depth is, therefore, called for and projection of power from external bases must be considered.

- To give credence to a nuclear war fighting system as also to the 'will' of the leadership to pursue a given strategy, India must, perforce, demonstrate a potential to survive a pre-emptive attack. This would necessitate a policy to provide a visible survival capability to the civilian population that lies in the proximity of her borders. And, this would entail much larger expenditures on damage limitation infrastructure than were initially incurred by the West.

According to him the sea leg of the triad would be composed of five SSBN's. Three for deterrence against China (two on patrol, one on reserve) and two for use against Pakistan (one on patrol and one on reserve). Each of the submarines would carry sixteen missiles, therefore the entire SLBM inventory would total eighty missiles.

Each missile would carry one warhead of varying yield. MIRV technology is far beyond the present capabilities of DRDO and it does appear that any major power would transfer such technology to India under any present circumstances.

As regards to warhead development he states "that the basic infrastructure exists, by virtue of which, an explosive device was developed and tested in 1974. Though India, thereafter, eschewed the nuclear option, there is no reason to believe that research in the field of explosive devices was discontinued. On this assumption one could surmise: that fairly advanced research and laboratory facilities exist and incremental costs of a nuclear strategy would be marginal; and, scientific know how over the last two decades, has mastered fusion technology on which higher yield warheads could be designed."

Reports of advanced nuclear development have appeared from at least two different sources. One claims that work on a hydrogen bomb has been ongoing at the Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC) for the past five years. The other report states that a lightweight nuclear warhead is being developed for the Agni missile system.

The accuracy of the above statements concerning warhead development or advances in fusion technology cannot be verified although it is believed that India was planning a nuclear test earlier this year.

Details of India's efforts in this and related areas are provided in a very recent article by Pravin Sawhney who is a former major of the Indian Army. The accuracy of his statements cannot be verified.

The desired weapons capability needed by India have been calculated and presented by Nair.

According to him targets in Pakistan should include: "Six metropolitan centres including port facilities; one corps sized offensive formation in its concentration area; three sets of bottle necks in the strategic communication network; five nuclear capable military airfields; two hydroelectric water storage dams. A total of 17 nuclear strikes."

For China he made the following recommendation: "Creation of a weapons capability to pull out five to six major industrial centers plus two ports designed to service China's SSBN fleet. This makes a total of 8 nuclear strikes."

"The ideal configuration of warhead numbers and yield would be: Two strikes of one megaton each for metropolitan centres and port facilities; two strikes of 15 kt each for battle field targets; one strike with a yield between 200 and 500 kt each for dams; one strike of 20 to 50 kt each for military airfields; and, one strike each of 15 kt for strategic military communication centres."

Lt. General K. Sundarji recently wrote that "For emplacing a minimum deterrent posture against China, it would be necessary for India to deploy land based IRBM's with fusion warheads or boosted yield fission warheads, partly in soft overground sites and partly rail-mobile, along with some SLBM capabilities...

Further "China is aware of India's sensitivity to major power naval (Nuclear) presence in the Indian Ocean and to efforts in the past to avert China's attempts at acquiring bases in the region. She will expect a sharp reaction to her presence which in turn will heighten her own threat perceptions.... Therefore, while accessing the threat from China, India can not confine herself to the present and a geographical constraint in the North. She has to analyze China's growth and direction of future power projection to arrive at a meaningful strategy for the future."

"China is extremely sensitive to the nuclear capability of potential foes. Russia and the United States are eons ahead of her in the nuclear arms race and no amount of arms limitation agreements are likely to change that equation. Added to this is the fact that India is on the threshold of indigenously producing nuclear powered submarines, has successfully launched short and intermediate range missiles and has demonstrated the capacity to produce a nuclear device. Therefore, China is not likely to accept India's stance on not going nuclear and will deploy a suitable deterrent as she has done to secure herself vis-a-vis the United States and the CIS."

"China, on the other hand, has all her critical assets beyond the current reach of Indian delivery systems. Recently, Sino-Indian relations have considerably thawed and the latter is preoccupied with the four major modernization programmes that would boost her into the great power bracket. The creation of a nuclear force in being to pose a major threat to China would denigrate the equation. However, China does have the capability to threaten to attack Indian targets and is firmly allied with Pakistan. She may, therefore, use coercive diplomacy based on her nuclear capacity to neutralize Pakistan's prevailing disadvantage. The fact of such a possibility requires the creation of a minimal long range capability that could reach limited countervalue targets on the Chinese mainland. The requirement is to have a retaliatory capability against five to six metropolitan centres on the Chinese main land. This need not be configured on IRBM's based in India but could best be achieved by submarine launched IRBM's that may be deployed suitably in the eventuality of a crisis. A direct threat to China's nuclear forces should be scrupulously avoided at this time."

As for the cost of such a fleet Brigadier Nair has stated: "The cost factor for nuclear powered submarines is already on the cards whether the country opts for a nuclear strategy or not." He further states that development costs of the SLBM are likely to be marginally higher (than an IRBM) to cater for subsurface launches. The costs would emerge at around Rs 10 crore a piece.

A 1995 article published in the Times of India entitled "Deterrence Must Shift Underwater" discusses the importance of a nuclear submarine capability to the future security of India. The author has stated: "If there is the intention of entering the nuclear club one day, it must be done with foresight and patience. The people have the right to nuclear deterrence at sea. They also need to know that the huge sum spent on national nuclear deterrence will not be overtaken by technology, thus necessitating further expenditure after a decade. The submarine-based missile system is the only answer to these variables today."

"There is a need to impart a sense of urgency to India's nuclear submarine program. The strategic community and those who represent India at international fora must realize that in the game of power, the nuclear submarine is a trump card. For India, which has no cards at all, the nuclear submarine will enable it to have a say once again in international affairs. It is amusing to note that India's claim to sit in the security council rests partly on its record as regards U.N. operations. Amusing, because despite the armed forces crying themselves hoarse about wanting to participate, India has been absent from all U.N. operations for 20 years since 1967. Therefore, if it does wish to renounce nuclear weapons once and for all and sign the NPT, and also wishes to deter hostile nations without declaring nuclear status, the nuclear submarine project must assume primary significance."

Admiral Nayyar (Vice Chairman of the Forum for Strategic and and Security Studies in New Delhi) recently stated that Pakistan is a declining threat to India and it is to Pakistan's advantage to have normal relations with India.

He also stated that "No Navy can be considered a force to reckon with unless it has nuclear submarines to control oceans".

A very recently published book detailing attitudes of the India public to issues surrounding the nuclear questions disputed New Delhi's thinking on China. "Contrary to official policy in New Delhi, which places major emphasis on the potential threat from China, the public does not currently perceive major danger in relations with Beijing." This fact may impact the willingness of the Indian public to finance such major undertakings as the nuclear submarine project.

A 1995 PhD thesis analyzed factors affecting whether the Indian Navy can respond to the growing Chinese fleet. The analysis looked at three prior periods of Indian naval expansion (1964-69, 1975-79, and 1985-89)and then projected the nature of the navy over the next twenty years.

Three factors that influenced naval expansion were analyzed. These factors were:

1) response to a perceived threat

2) India's economic condition

3) benefit of foreign military aid

The conclusion reached for the next twenty year period is that naval expansion was unlikely due to the absence of foreign military aid. Without a substitute arms supplier taking the place of the Soviet Union expansion is unlikely.

It is possible that the United States could fill that spot, however that appears unlikely. The funding of any Indian project connected with nuclear weapons (especially a nuclear-powered submarine)is not in the strategic interest of the United States and its Asian and European allies and would be actively opposed.

The Soviet Union should not totally discounted as evidenced by the recent offer to sell Kilo Type 636 submarines to India. Terms and conditions of the proposed offer have not been announced.

The recently published Defense Ministry's 2005 Plan does not provide any funding figures for the nuclear submarine program. This may indicate the increasing differences between the military and the nuclear establishment in India. The future of this program may appear to be doubt but it will survive in some form.

 

[Screaming Skull]

Akula class n-powered sub to be used for crew training

New Delhi, Aug 9 2008 (IANS) The Russian-built nuclear-powered Akula-II class attack submarine that will be delivered to India by next year on a 10-year lease will primarily be used to train crews to operate this kind of a vessel. Partly financed by India under a hush-hush deal signed with Russia in January 2004, the 12,000-ton submarine was been built at the Komsomolsk-on-Amur shipyard in Russia. It will be commissioned into the Indian Navy as INS Chakra.

“After various delays, the nuclear-powered vessel (Akula) for crew training will come some time next year,” Indian Navy chief Admiral Sureesh Mehta said.

The Akula-II class vessels are considered the quietest and deadliest among Russian nuclear-powered attack submarines.

According to experts, INS Chakra would help India fill the void caused by the delays in the indigenous Advanced Technology Vessel project to build a nuclear powered attack submarine capable of firing missiles.

Three Indian naval crews for the nuclear submarine have already been trained at the specially set up training centre in Sosnovy Bor near St. Petersburg.

“Akula will be used to train our crew before they come up at the platform that will be developed by DRDO (Defence Research and Development Organisation) in two years’ time,” Mehta added.

According to defence sources, three domestically-designed nuclear submarines are under construction under a top-secret Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) programme at Mazagon dock, but the navy needs to gain first-hand experience in nuclear submarine operations, deployment and maintenance prior to the deployment of domestic submarines.

The nuclear submarine leased by Russia will not be equipped with long-range cruise missiles due to international restrictions on missile technology proliferation, but India may later opt to fit it with domestically designed long-range nuclear-capable missiles.

At present, India operates 16 conventional diesel submarines and awaits six French-Spanish Scorpene class diesel attack submarines, to be delivered between 2012 and 2017. India plans to deploy at least three nuclear submarines armed with long-range strategic missiles by 2015.

The first of the three domestic nuclear submarines is expected to begin sea trials by mid-2009.

India previously leased a Charlie-I class nuclear submarine from the Soviet Union from 1988 to 1991.

 

[Screaming Skull]

Indian Navy crew to train on nuclear-powered submarine​

New Delhi, Nov 2 2008 (IANS) A batch of Indian Navy personnel will leave for Russia this month to get training on board a Russia-built nuclear powered submarine, which will be delivered to India by next year on a 10-year lease.Partly financed by India under a hush-hush deal signed with Russia in January 2004 for $650 million, the 12,000-tonne Akula class attack submarine was being built at the Komsomolsk-on-Amur shipyard in Russia. It will be commissioned into the Indian Navy as INS Chakra.

“The Indian Navy crew of nearly 40 personnel will leave for the Russian port of Vladivostok in batches to train on board INS Chakra this month,” said a senior naval official, requesting anonymity.

The shipyard in Russia announced last month that the submarine had been shifted out of the shipyard to a maintenance facility in Primorye territory near Vladivostok for trials in the Sea of Japan.

The Akula-II class vessels are considered to be the quietest and deadliest among Russian nuclear-powered attack submarines. The likely date of commissioning of INS Chakra in the Indian Navy is Aug 15, 2009.

According to defence officials, three domestically-designed nuclear submarines are under construction under a top-secret Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) programme at Mazagon docks in Mumbai, but the navy needs to gain first-hand experience in nuclear submarine operations, deployment and maintenance prior to the deployment of domestic submarines. The first of the three indigenous nuclear submarines is expected to begin its sea trials Jan 26, 2009.

According to experts, INS Chakra would help India fill the void caused by the delays in the indigenous ATV project to build a nuclear powered attack submarine capable of firing missiles.

Three Indian naval crews for the nuclear submarine have already been trained at the specially set up training centre in Sosnovy Bor near St. Petersburg.

The nuclear submarine leased by Russia will not be equipped with long-range cruise missiles due to international restrictions on missile technology proliferation, but India may later opt to fit it with domestically-designed long-range nuclear-capable missiles.

At present, India operates 16 conventional diesel submarines and awaits six French-Spanish Scorpene class diesel attack submarines, to be delivered between 2012 and 2017. India plans to deploy at least three nuclear submarines armed with long-range strategic missiles by 2015.

India previously leased a Charlie-I class nuclear submarine from the Soviet Union from 1988 to 1991.

 

[Screaming Skull]

India test fires submarine-launched nuclear capable ballistic missile​

NEW DELHI — India test-fired a medium-range, nuclear-capable missile Wednesday from a land-based launcher in eastern India, a defense ministry official said.

The weapon tested was a K-15 missile, an undersea submarine-launched ballistic missile with a range of up to 435 miles, said the officer on condition of anonymity because he was not authorized to talk to reporters.

It was fired from a test range in Chandipur in eastern Orissa state, nearly 700 miles southeast of New Delhi.

Nov. 12: A missile lifts off from a test range in Balasore in eastern Indian state of Orissa, India.

India and longtime rival Pakistan routinely test-fire missiles. They usually notify each other ahead of missile launches in keeping with an agreement between the two nations.

India test-fired the K-15 missile from a pontoon immersed in the sea earlier this year.

India's current crop of missiles are mostly intended for confronting neighboring archrival Pakistan.

The Agni 3, in contrast, is India's longest-range missile, designed to reach 1,900 miles -- putting China's major cities well into range, as well as targets deep in the Middle East.

India and Pakistan have fought three wars since their independence from Britain in 1947. They have been holding peace talks since 1994 aimed at resolving their differences, including their dispute over the Himalayan region of Kashmir.

 

[Screaming Skull]

India's nuclear submarine plan surfaces
​

Siddharth Srivastava

Feb 20, 2009

NEW DELHI - Expressing fears about cross-border terrorism in the wake of the November 26 Mumbai attack and keeping a close eye on China's military expansion, India announced plans this week to hike its defense budget by 34% to 1.4 trillion rupees (US$30 billion) and last week revealed that its project to build three nuclear-powered submarines is nearing completion.

"Things are in the final stage now in the Advanced Technology Vessel [nuclear-submarines] project. There were [mainly technical] bottlenecks earlier ... they are over now," Defense Minister A K Antony said on February 12.

The Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) project is part of India's $3 billion plan to build five submarines and complete what it calls a "triad" of nuclear weapon launch capability - from air, land and sea. India is concurrently developing the K-15 ballistic missile, which can be nuclear-tipped and launched from submarines.

Defense sources have told Asia Times Online that New Delhi has been actively seeking out assistance from France in the implementation of the ATV project, and that Russian engineers are already involved. The sources said that the sea trials of the nuclear-powered submarines should begin this month and that the submarines should be operational within the next three years.

The secretive ATV nuclear backed ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) project began in the late 1970's and is being implemented at a secret dry dock in Visakhapatnam, India's Eastern Naval command base. Observers have said that the submarines are a critical addition to India's weapons capabilities.

In a grim reminder of the possible dangers facing India from the sea, India's Naval chief Admiral Suresh Mehta warned this week that terrorists could smuggle "dirty" nuclear bombs via the nation's ports as they lack adequate security measures. Terrorists also used a sea route to infiltrate Mumbai.

Nuclear-powered submarines with their greater speed, power, range and the length of time they can stay submerged compared to conventional diesel-electric submarines are effective for sudden strikes as well as fast and stealthy protection from attacks.

New Delhi has been concerned about Beijing's strengthening of bilateral ties with Islamabad, particularly given recent tension on sea projects such as at the Gwadar port. China has also been developing ties with Sri Lanka and Myanmar to deepen its control over a complex energy-security conflict being aggressively played out in the region.

Given the ongoing tussle between India and China to control the waters of the Indian Ocean, the New Delhi government has been put under tremendous pressure from the navy to ramp up India's sea power. China has already spoken of creating three ocean-going fleets to patrol the areas of Japan and Korea, the western Pacific, the Malacca Strait and the Indian Ocean.

The ATV project has been in the spotlight as India's other attempt to procure a nuclear submarine this year received a setback when Russia "indefinitely" postponed delivery of the Akula-II class Nerpa nuclear submarine, citing incomplete sea trials and a lack of funds.

Further, the Amur shipyard in Russia's far east, where the sub is being built, is yet to finalize a new team following an accident in November in which 20 members were killed. The accident has led Indian media to describe the submarine as "cursed".

India has been looking at developing underseas capabilities to launch nuclear weapons, after gaining some competence in land-based nuclear delivery platforms for the domestically developed ballistic missiles Prithvi and Agni.

India has already developed a submarine-launched supersonic missile, a modification of the BrahMos cruise missiles, an achievement previously limited to only advanced nations such as the US, France and Russia. Ship and land launched versions of the BrahMos are being introduced in the navy and army.

The state-controlled Defense Research and Development Organization is also undertaking a joint development project with Israel Aerospace Industries to develop a surface-to-air missile which can be launched from land and ships.

Upgrade and renovation of India's navy will be an important aspect of India's US$50 billion defense modernization exercise. Under the plan, the projects code named 75 and 76 entail the production of 24 underwater vessels valued at US$20 billion to meet the challenges across the Indian Ocean.

In 2007, construction of the highly-advanced Scorpene submarine began at the upgraded Mazgon Dock in Mumbai as part of a US$3.5 billion deal for six such French submarines. As the Scorpene deal involves transfer of technology, it should be beneficial for both nations as India gains new technology and French firms gain a possible foothold in the big Indian market.

But significant delays are now expected in India's acquisition of the aircraft carriers Admiral Gorskov from Russia and two that are being developed at home. In early 2007, India purchased the 36-year-old US warship the USS Trenton (re-christened INS Jalashwa) with a gross tonnage of 16,900 tons for US$50 million.

The Trenton is the first ever US warship owned by the Indian Navy and the second largest that India possesses after the INS Viraat aircraft carrier. The Indian Navy plans to add 40 new warships to its fleet and the government plans to invest over 500 billion rupees (over US$12 billion) over the next 10 years on warships.

The government has encouraged the private sector to play a bigger role in the nation's defense, and India's largest engineering and construction firm Larsen & Toubro has announced plans to build defense warships and paramilitary vessels at a proposed facility in Tamil Nadu.

After the rude awakening of the Mumbai terror attacks, others branches of the military are also now pushing for more upgrades and additions.

The Indian Air Force, for example, is seeking 42 fighter squadrons up from the current 32 or 33 squadrons (each with 14 to 18 jets), to offset the phasing out of older Russian planes. The army, which has been allocated a large piece of the military outlay, is seeking more tanks and howitzer field guns.

 

[AkhandBharat]

This is the first of 3 nuclear submarines that India is planning on building.

 

[Screaming Skull]

 

[Screaming Skull]

 

[Gucci Juice]

^

not true, i dont think it has been launched yet.

prolly in 2010

 

[satishkumarcsc]

^

not true, i dont think it has been launched yet.

prolly in 2010

You can never tell about subs.