Armoured shift
Last posted:2013-01-24
Contents
France's Leclerc
The ubiquitous Leopard
Advent of the Altay
The Challenger fleet
East European developments
Middle Eastern developments
Asian MBT progress
Lighter tanks
The years ahead
MBTs have proved to be highly effective in Iraq and Afghanistan, where their heavily protected firepower and mobility have proved invaluable. However, while a number of MBT programs continue worldwide, many European countries now no longer produce them. Christopher F Foss investigates
Oman has been the only export customer for the UK's Challenger 2 MBT. (BAE Systems)
Until recently, the design, development, and production of main battle tanks (MBTs) was concentrated in Europe and the United States. However, over the last few years this has all changed, with a number of European countries no longer having the capability to design, develop, and manufacture highly complex MBTs.
Another reason for the European downturn is the potentially huge cost of taking an MBT from concept through to prototype, pre-production, and quantity production and continuing a programme through life support.
However, a number of non-Western countries have now entered the MBT market, although their platforms often use European subsystems.
The end of the Cold War has resulted in some countries making cuts to MBT fleets. These surplus vehicles have either been sold or given away. German Leopard 1 and Leopard 2 MBTs, for example, have been exported in significant numbers, as have US-built M60A1/A3s. A large numbers of surplus Russian-designed T-54/55 and T-72 MBTs have also found new homes in Africa and elsewhere since the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact.
Sweden and Switzerland, meanwhile, still have the capability to design, develop, and manufacture MBTs, but following competitive trials have instead opted to manufacture the German Krauss-Maffei Wegmann Leopard 2 MBT under licence to replace their fleets.
While almost all countries have significantly reduced their MBT fleets, a number of European countries are considering removing MBTs from their AFV inventories altogether as they see no long-term requirement for them. The Royal Netherlands Army (RNLA), for example, had a fleet of 468 Leopard 1s, 445 Leopard 2s, and 180 upgraded Leopard 2A6s, but in 2010 these were phased out of service.
The Al Khalid is the latest MBT to be manufactured in Pakistan. It is armed with a 125 mm gun and features an advanced armour package that includes ERA over the frontal arc. (Heavy Industries Taxila)
In the Middle East, however, there is no sign of a reduction in fleet sizes. A number of countries have even procured new MBTs to enhance their armoured capability or to replace ageing vehicles for which spare parts are becoming difficult to obtain.
MBTs are among the most flexible land weapon systems and can be used across the full military spectrum, ranging from conventional manoeuvre warfare to peace enforcement and counterinsurgency (COIN) operations.
Vehicles employed for the latter have been modified with enhanced armour protection, electronic devices to counter improvised explosive devices (IEDs), roof-mounted remote weapon stations (RWSs), and cameras for enhanced situational awareness.
Air conditioning, meanwhile, is now considered an essential MBT system for providing a suitable working environment for the crew and keeping electronic systems cool and fully operational.
All of the electronic equipment in the latest generation of MBTs, including communications and battle management systems, demand increasing levels of power, so many recently designed MBTs have an auxiliary power unit (APU) fitted as standard. This allows key subsystems to run with the main engine switched off, saving fuel and potentially reducing the acoustic and thermal signature of the vehicle.
An MBT's primary weapon - usually a 120 mm smoothbore main gun - normally fires two main types of round: armour-piercing fin-stabilised discarding sabot (APFSDS) and high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT). Since these are not well suited to COIN operations, development has been undertaken of more specialised rounds, including the Rheinmetall 120 mm DM12 HE, which includes a programmable fuze for use against area targets and dug-in infantry.
Additionally, Israel Military Industries has developed and produced an Anti-Personnel Anti-Materiel (APAM) round that is being manufactured in 105 mm and 120 mm calibres, while the rifled 120 mm gun of the BAE Systems Challenger 2 can fire the High-Explosive Squash Head (HESH) round that was originally developed to counter armoured vehicles but is highly effective against bunkers and other targets.
France's Leclerc
The French Army replaced its AMX-30 MBTs with the Nexter Systems Leclerc MBT, with a total of 406 being delivered by 2007. A batch of 20 Leclerc armoured recovery vehicles (ARVs) were also procured, although other support vehicles were based on the older AMX-30 hull.
An IDF Merkava Mk 4 MBT armed with a 120 mm smoothbore gun and fitted with the Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Trophy hard-kill DAS. (Rafael)
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) took delivery of 436 Leclercs under the type's only export order, which included ARVs based on a lengthened hull with an additional road wheel on either side.
Compared with French Army Leclercs, the UAE's vehicles had a number of enhancements, including the installation of the German 1,500 hp MTU EuroPowerPack, additional protection, air conditioning, a battle management system, and a commander's panoramic sight, including day/thermal channels and a laser rangefinder.
Production of the Leclerc hull and integration of the turret took place at Nexter Systems' Roanne facility. However, while Nexter Systems is still technically capable of building Leclercs, the French fleet is being reduced to 254 vehicles, so surplus vehicles will probably be upgraded just to fulfil any export orders.
The Roanne facility is currently overhauling 10 French Army Leclercs a year, and a number of enhancements are expected to be carried out on French Army vehicles in the future, funding permitting.
To facilitate operations in a built-up environment, Nexter Systems has developed the AZUR (Action en Zone URban) kit for the Leclerc. Although tested by the French Army, the UAE is the first customer for this and has taken delivery of an initial batch of AZUR kits sufficient for one squadron of vehicles.
The ubiquitous Leopard
Since rolling off the production line in 1979, the German Krauss-Maffei Leopard 2 has been the most commercially successful MBT in Europe and is now deployed by 15 countries. The final production German Army model was the Leopard 2A4, which was followed by the survivability-enhanced Leopard 2A5 and Leopard 2A6.
The Leopard 2A5 retains the standard Rheinmetall 120 mm L/44 smoothbore gun, while the Leopard 2A6 has the longer Rheinmetall 120 mm L/55 smoothbore gun, which increases the tank's effective combat range by about 1,500 m.
Deployed by the German Army, the Leopard 2A6 is armed with the longer Rheinmetall 120 mm L/55 smoothbore gun and has an enhanced armour package.
For German Army service the Leopard 2A5 (125 units) and 2A6 (225 units) were upgrades, while for some countries these MBTs were built under licence: Greece and Spain produced 2A6s, while Sweden produced 2A5s, with each country incorporating a number of modifications to meet its own specific requirements.
First shown in mid-2010, the latest version of the German MBT is the Leopard 2A7+. This has been demonstrated in the Middle East, where potential customers include Saudi Arabia and Qatar. It is expected that any future export-production Leopard 2s will be to this configuration but optimised to meet specific user requirements. The German Army is to take delivery of 20 Leopard 2A7+ Urban Operation variants from 2014.
Leopard 2 production was shared between Krauss-Maffei Wegmann and Rheinmetall. Of the 1,800 vehicles built for the German Army, 990 were built by the former and 810 by the latter.
Rheinmetall has also supplied many key subsystems for Leopard 2s, including the 120 mm smoothbore gun and its family of ammunition as well as the vehicle's computerised fire-control system (FCS).
Krauss-Maffei Wegmann and Rheinmetall have retained stocks of surplus Leopard 2s that can be exported, overhauled, upgraded or converted into specialised support vehicles, such as ARVs, armoured vehicle-launched bridges (AVLBs), and armoured engineering vehicles (AEVs).
Rheinmetall has also developed the Leopard 2A4-based MBT Revolution as a private venture that was first shown in mid-2010. This is a modular vehicle for which the end user can select items according to user requirements. The first such example retains the Rheinmetall 120 mm L/44 smoothbore gun and 1,200 hp MTU powerpack of the Leopard 2, but its capability has been enhanced by cameras for 360° situational awareness, a new passive armour package, grenade launchers covering 360°, an upgraded suspension, a roof-mounted 12.7 mm remote weapon station (RWS), a commander's roof-mounted panoramic sight, all-electric gun control equipment, and a fully digital turret.
A Polish Anders hull fitted with the Belgian CMI Defence turret armed with a 105 mm rifled gun fed by a bustle-mounted automatic loader. (CMI Defence)
Advent of the Altay
Over the last 15 years Turkey has become self-sufficient in the design, development, and production of light and medium tracked and wheeled AFVs, some of which have had major success in the international export market, especially in Asia and the Middle East.
NATO's European members, Turkey also has the largest MBT fleet. Its most potent vehicles are 298 German Army Leopard 2A4s and 170 US-supplied M60A3s, which have been upgraded to the M60T configuration by Israel Military Industries: a major and expensive upgrade that included a 120 mm smoothbore gun, computerised FCS, additional armour, and an MTU powerpack.
Following a competition Otokar, which has built large numbers of wheeled AFVs for the home and export markets, was awarded the contract for development of the Altay MBT to meet Turkish Land Forces Command (TLFC) requirements. In late 2012 the mobility test rig (MTR) and firepower test rig (FTR) for the Altay were completed and are now undertaking intensive trials. These will be followed by two prototype vehicles and then 250 production vehicles.
The Altay has a conventional MBT design, a crew of four, a 120 mm L/55 smoothbore gun (provided by Hyundai Rotem Company) coupled to a computerised FCS, day/thermal sights for the gunner, and a panoramic day/thermal sight for the commander.
It is probable that the Altay will soon be the only MBT in production by a European NATO member, a possibility that could open up the door to significant export opportunities.
The Challenger fleet.
In the United Kingdom BAE Systems delivered 386 Challenger 2 MBTs to the British Army and 38 to Oman, the latter MBTs being suitably optimised for use in the Middle East.
The latest Russian MBT to be offered on the export market is the T-90MS, which has a number of improvements, especially in the area of survivability.
Beyond those fleets, however, no further sales were secured. For the export market the company did develop the Challenger 2E - which had a number of enhancements, including an MTU EuroPowerPack developing 1,500 hp - but all marketing of this variant has now ceased.
Following completion of the last Terrier combat engineer vehicle in late 2013/early 2014, BAE Systems will close its Newcastle-Upon-Tyne facility and no longer have an AFV production capability in the UK.
As a result of the 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review the British Army will retain only three Challenger 2 regiments, each with 58 MBTs, plus a fleet of 227 vehicles in training and maintenance.
For trials purposes a Challenger 2 has been fitted with a Rheinmetall 120 mm L/55 smoothbore gun to replace its 120 mm L30 rifled tank gun: an upgrade that would have been part of a projected Challenger Capability Sustainment Programme (CCSP).
The scope of this project has now been reduced, however, and a Challenger 2 Life Extension Programme (LEP) will now be carried out on the tank's L30 gun and 1,200 hp powerpack, with some of the vehicle's obsolete optronic and electronic subsystems also being replaced.
Although the LEP will enable the Challenger 2 to remain in service until 2035, its main weapon system will be overmatched before then.
The latest version of the Swedish CV90120-Tank fitted with the Adaptiv signature reduction system and a Rheinmetall 120 mm smoothbore low-recoil gun. (BAE Systems)
East European developments
While the Soviet Union had four MBT production facilities, only two sites now remain in Russia: Omsk, which produced the T-80; and Nizhny Tagil, which produced the T-72 and is currently building the T-90. Both of these facilities are part of the UralVagonZavod Joint Stock Company Research and Production Corporation, which brings together more than 20 Russian companies engaged in the design, development, and production of land systems.
There has been no recent production of the T-80, although quantities of vehicles are held in stock and sales have been made to Cyprus and South Korea. Yemen, meanwhile, received some vehicles from Belarus in 2010.
As well as being in service with the Russian Army, the T-90 (which is a direct development of the T-72) has been exported to Algeria, India (including local production), Libya (not all delivered), and Turkmenistan.
The latest export variant, the T-90MS, has received a number of armour, mobility, and firepower improvements. Its main gun is the latest 125 mm 2A46 series smoothbore, firing-enhanced ammunition, although it also retains the ability to fire laser-guided munition out to a range of 5,000 m. The T-90MS also sports an upgraded FCS with a commander's independent sight, a roof-mounted 12.7 mm RWS, a self-screening system, an upgraded powerpack, and an APU.
An Altay Mobility Test Rig (MTG) being put through its paces at the Otokar facilities in Turkey late in 2012. (Otokar)
In addition to the current-production T-90S MBT, UralVagonZavod is offering upgrades to the older T-55 and T-72 MBTs along with a range of supporting vehicles, including the BREM-1M ARV, 2S19 152 mm self-propelled artillery system, and the latest TOS-1A rocket launcher with its associated fuel-air-explosive rockets.
Following the cancellation of the so-called T-95, Russia is now rapidly developing a new MBT called the Armata (or Armada). The first example of the Armata is scheduled for completion in 2013, with first production vehicles expected in 2015. This is a very tight development schedule, which, when compared with traditional Western MBT development programmes, leaves little time for the extensive trials necessary to iron out problems prior to the initiation of quantity production.
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine retained the MBT production capability in Kharkiv, now known as the Malyshev Plant, and has exported more than 1,200 MBTs, many of which were surplus T-72s.
Ukraine sold 320 T-80UDs to Pakistan and further developments resulted in the T-84, which has been supplied to the Ukrainian Army.
The Malyshev Plant is now producing numerous MBT upgrades, with the latest being the BM Oplot, which is armed with a 125 mm smoothbore gun and has received survivability improvements.
Middle Eastern developments
Countries in the Middle East have the largest MBT fleets outside China, India, Russia, Turkey, and the United States. Most countries in the region have been enhancing their fleets with the acquisition of new vehicles or upgrades.
The latest MBT to enter production in South Korea is the advanced K2, which features a 120 mm L/55 smoothbore gun fed by a bustle-mounted automatic loader and has a crew of three. (Hyundai Rotem)
The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) continue to procure the latest combat-proven Merkava Mk 4 MBTs, with all current production models being fitted with the Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Trophy hard-kill defensive aids system (DAS). These serve alongside older Merkavas and upgraded M60s, which retain their 105 mm rifled guns but have received survivability improvements.
Egypt continues to co-produce the General Dynamics Land Systems M1A1 Abrams MBT, which is also deployed by Australia (M1A1), Iraq (M1A1), Kuwait (M1A2), Saudi Arabia (M1A2), along with the US Army and US Marine Corps. Other countries, including potentially Greece, Morocco, and Taiwan, are expected to acquire surplus US Army M1A1 MBTs in the future.
Iran, meanwhile, has run an ambitious AFV programme over the last 20 years and the country's Defense Industries Organization has developed and placed in production the Zulfiqar MBT. There are at least three known versions of this MBT, all of which are understood to be armed with a 125 mm smoothbore gun firing separate loading ammunition.
Asian MBT progress
While MBT development in Europe has been significantly reduced and in some countries stopped, the same cannot be said for Asia, with China, India, South Korea, and Pakistan all now involved in the design, development, and production of MBTs to varying degrees of success.
The latest MBT to be offered on the export market by NORINCO is the MBT-3000, which has an advanced armour package, a crew of three and a 125 mm smoothbore gun fed by an automatic loader. (NORINCO)
Early Chinese tanks were based on Russian designs, but this has now changed.
Today China is self-sufficient in the design, development and production of MBTs, although some subsystems may be based on imported technology. An example of the latter would be the 125 mm laser-guided projectile fired by China's latest Type 98/Type 99 MBTs that is based on the Russian Tula KBP Instrument Design Bureau 9K119 Reflecks system.
China North Industries Corporation (NORINCO) is currently marketing only three locally developed MBTs on the export market: the MBT-3000 (weighing 52 tonnes and sporting a 1,300 hp powerpack); the MBT-2000 (weighing 48 tonnes with a 1,200 hp powerpack); and the VT2 (weighing 42.8 tonnes with an 800 hp powerpack).
All are armed with a 125 mm smoothbore gun fed by an automatic loader that enables the crew to be reduced to three (commander, gunner, and driver) and have varying levels of armour protection.
India, meanwhile, has aspired to be self-sufficient in the production of MBTs for many years, with the original requirement for an indigenously built MBT being issued in 1972. India's Arjun MBT has thus had a long development period, with the first production batch of 124 Arjun Mk 1s now complete and a second batch of Arjun Mk 2s subsequently ordered.
To fulfil its MBT requirements in the meantime, India produced licenced versions of the Russian T-72M1 and then the T-90S, with the latter including a laser-guided missile manufactured by Bharat Dynamics.
Compared with India, Pakistan has been far more successful, having worked closely with China and more recently Ukraine. All MBT development and production in Pakistan is undertaken at the Heavy Industries Taxila (HIT) facility, which also produces other tracked and wheeled armoured vehicles.
Pakistan adopted a phased approach, starting with an upgraded version of the Chinese Type 59 MBT, which itself is based on the Russian T-54 developed at the end of the Second World War. This upgrade included replacement of the 100 mm rifled main armament with a 105 mm rifled gun, new sights for the commander and gunner, a computerised FCS, and additional armour.
The French Army took delivery of 406 Leclerc MBTs, but this number is being reduced to 254. (C F Foss)
This was followed by local assembly of the Chinese Type 69 under the designation Type 69 IIMP, which has the same 105 mm gun as the Type 59.
Pakistan then took delivery of a significant batch of Chinese Type 85 MBTs before undertaking local production of an improved model called the Type 85 IIP, which has a 125 mm smoothbore gun fitted with an automatic loader (allowing the crew to be reduced to three).
The latest MBT to enter production in Pakistan is the Al Khalid, which also uses some components from the Type 59s/Type 69s/Type 85s. It has a gross vehicle weight (GVW) of 48 tonnes and is armed with a 125 mm smoothbore gun.
While earlier diesel engines for Pakistani MBTs were supplied from China with progressive local production, for the Al Khalid programme Pakistan purchased 315 6TD-2 compact diesel engines from Ukraine.
Prior to this Ukraine sold 350 T-80UD MBTs to Pakistan, which were delivered between 1997 and 1999.
South Korea, meanwhile, now has also become self-sufficient in all types of AFVs, including MBTs. Hyundai Rotem Company, as the country's prime contractor for tanks, is estimated to have manufactured around 1,500 K1 MBTs for the Republic of Korea (RoK) Army, although the first South Korean test rigs were completed by General Dynamics Land Systems in the United States.
The original K1 has a combat weight of 51.1 tonnes and is armed with a standard 105 mm M68A1 rifled tank gun coupled to a computerised FCS that includes day/thermal sights.
The Brazilian Army has taken delivery of surplus German Army Leopard 1A5s as well as more specialised support vehicles. (Brazilian Army)
This was followed by the K1A1 in 1996, which not only features a locally manufactured 120 mm M256 smoothbore gun (as installed in the US General Dynamics Land Systems M1A1/M1A2 Abrams) but also has a commander's day/thermal panoramic sight, enhanced armour, and upgraded electronics.
Currently in production is the 55-tonne K2 MBT, which is a brand new design. This has a crew of three and a 120 mm L/55 smoothbore gun fed by a bustle-mounted automatic loader, which holds ready-use ammunition. The L/55 is coupled to a computerised FCS, which provides a high first-round hit probability, while the commander has a panoramic stabilised sight.
Like the K1/K1A1, the K2 has a hydro-pneumatic suspension, with its 1,500 hp MTU powerpack giving a power-to-weight ratio of 27.27 hp/tonne.
In Malaysia the most well-armed vehicles deployed until recently were the country's SIBMAS 6x6 and Scorpion tracked reconnaissance vehicles, which were both armed with a 90 mm gun. However, the country has now taken delivery of a fleet of 48 Polish PT-91M MBTs along with key support vehicles, including six WZT-91M ARVs, three MID-91M AEVs, and five PMC-91M AVLBs.
Singapore, meanwhile, has received 96 ex-German Army Leopard 2s, of which 66 have been deployed and the remainder used for spare parts. At least part of this fleet has been upgraded with a new passive armour package supplied by Germany's IBD.
Singapore has also acquired from Rheinmetall Buffel ARVs based on surplus Leopard 2 hulls as well as Leguan AVLBs from Krauss-Maffei Wegmann.
While Indonesia currently only deploys the obsolete AMX-13 light tank, it is expected in future to acquire Leopard 2s.
The Rheinmetall MBT Revolution is based on a Leopard 2 and is shown here fitted with a host of improvements including a new armour package, 360° cameras and roof-mounted RWS. (Rheinmetall)
Lighter tanks.
The GVW of MBTs has been increasing over the last 40 years. This increased weight has resulted from necessary higher levels of protection and an increase in the main armament calibre from a 105 mm rifled gun to a 120 mm smoothbore weapon.
While MBTs can be deployed in most parts of the world, South America, Asia, and parts of Africa tend not to have the road infrastructure (including bridges) to handle their weight.
To meet Argentina's operational requirements, Thyssen Henschel (now Rheinmetall) developed the TAM medium tank, an associated infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) and a family of more specialised vehicles.
The TAM weighs around 30 tonnes and is fitted with a three-person turret armed with a 105 mm rifled gun and is therefore suitable for use in South America.
BAE Systems in Sweden developed, as a private venture, the CV90120-T tank, with the first example being completed in 1998. This was based on the proven CV90 IFV, which is deployed by Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland.
The CV90120-T is fitted with a three-person turret that was originally fitted with the Swiss RUAG Defence 120 mm Compact Tank Gun (CTG) coupled to a computerised FCS. Since it was first demonstrated, however, the CV90120-T has been further developed as new technology has become available.
The latest version of the vehicle was shown in late 2011 fitted with the Rheinmetall 120 mm RH 120 LLR L/47 smoothbore gun, an Adaptiv signature reduction system, and Soucy rubber band tracks, which offer a number of advantages including low weight, reduced vibration, and a lower acoustic signature.
The CV90120-T thus has the same firepower as the most commonly deployed Leopard 2 and the same level of mobility, but since it typically weighs around 35 tonnes, depending on the configuration, it has greater deployability. It does not, of course, have the same level of ballistic protection as the Leopard 2, but its survivability can be enhanced with the installation of a DAS.
With the reduction in the size of the German Army, significant numbers of surplus Marder 1 IFVs have been offered for sale, with Chile having already taken delivery of a batch. Taking the baseline Marder 1 IFV hull as a starting point, Rheinmetall has upgraded the vehicle's armour and mobility, but in addition to the IFV version it has produced a direct-fire/tank version. This was shown in mid-2012 and is fitted with the Oto Melara turret from the Centauro armoured car.
To meet domestic and potential export requirements, Poland's Bumar developed the Anders multirole platform, which was shown in 2012 fitted with the Belgian CMI Defence CT-CV turret and elements of the Zaslon active defence system.
An upgraded Marder 1 hull complete with applique armour and a three-person turret armed with a 105 mm gun. (Rheinmetall)
The CT-CV turret has been developed as a private venture and can be integrated on to a wide range of tracked and wheeled AFVs. A two-person turret, it is armed with a 105 mm CV rifled gun coupled to a computerised FCS and fed by a bustle-mounted automatic loader that carries 18 rounds of ready-use ammunition. As well as APFSDS, this can include the Falarick laser-guided missile from Ukraine, which features a tandem HEAT warhead and enables targets to be engaged out to a range of 5,000 m - beyond the range of the 105 mm gun.
The years ahead
Rather than procure new MBTs, most countries are looking to upgrade their existing vehicles' armour, mobility and firepower to extend the operational life of their tank fleets. This is best done by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) or a company that has been engaged in producing the vehicle at the subsystem level, with some understanding and knowledge of system integration. Upgrades carried out by a variety of contractors spread across four or more countries can lead to major integration problems, low reliability, and delayed in-service dates.
Since the tank first appeared on the battlefield more than 95 years ago there have been many occasions in which, prompted by the advent of potentially more effective weapon systems such as attack helicopters and new anti-tank weapons, pundits have claimed that such heavy armour no longer had a role to play in future conflicts. The MBT, however, has proven to be adaptable to an evolving battlefield, especially in the areas of armour and survivability.
Countries wanting to retain a full warfighting capability would thus be well advised to retain MBTs as part of their overall ground manoeuvre capability, which includes everything from MBTs to IFVs, lighter armoured vehicles, conventional tube and rocket artillery, combat engineering capabilities, logistic support, and aviation elements backed up by a range of ISTAR assets.
Christopher F Foss is the Land Consultant, based in London.
