Prominent Muslim Rulers/Dynasties throughout South Asian history

[Hamza913]

You seems to fancy the non-Muslim rulers with pride while bad mouthing those who defeated your "rulers".

Because he's an ethno-centrist.

 

[S.Y.A]

Yeah keep on justifying genocide, rape and mass murder and cry foul when you are being called a terrorist.

That is what your buddhist brethren are doing in burna and sri lanka. I think you may be a by product of these rulers, maybe that is why you hate them so much.

 

[Pan-Islamic-Pakistan]

That is what your buddhist brethren are doing in burna and sri lanka. I think you may be a by product of these rulers, maybe that is why you hate them so much.

Just report and don’t reply.

They are starved for attention.

 

[Buddhistforlife]

Just report and don’t reply.

They are starved for attention.

Why report? This dude started the fuss. I just replied. If you can't handle replies in controversial topics then you shouldnt be in this forum as this forum ain't a place where you will write and others will listen.

 

[dexter]

Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320) :

Jalal-ud-din Khilji overthrew Balban’s successors and founded the Khilji Dynasty, which ruled large parts of South Asia between 1290 and 1320. That was the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate of India. “The Khilji dynasty was named after a village in Afghanistan. Some historians believe that they wereAfghans, but Bharani and Wolse Haig explain in their accounts that the rulers from this dynasty who came to India, though they had temporarily settled in Afghanistan, were originally Turkic”.The Khiljis were a Central Asian Turkic dynasty but having been long domiciled in Afghanistan, and adopted some Afghan habits and customs. They were treated as Afghans in Delhi Court”. The three sultans of the Khalji dynasty were noted by historians for their faithlessness and ferocity. To some extent, the Khilji usurpation was a move toward the recognition of a shifting balance of power attributable to the developments outside the territory of the Delhi Sultanate (in Central Asia and Iran) and to the changes which followed the establishment of Turkic rule in northern India. The court languages of the Khiljis were Persian, followed by Arabic, their native Turkoman language and some northern-Indian dialects. Although it was not their native language, the Khilji sultans encouraged the use of Persian. This co-existence of different languages gave birth to an early form of Urdu. According to Ibn Batuta, the Khiljis encouraged conversion to Islam by making it customary to have the convert presented to the sultan (who would place a robe on him and reward him with gold bracelets). During Ikhtiyar Uddin Bakhtiyar Khilji’s control of Bengal, Muslim missionaries in India achieved their greatest success in the number of converts to Islam.

The founder of the Khalji Dynasty in South Asia, Malik Firuz, was originally the Ariz-i-Mumalik appointed by Kaiqubad during the days of decline of the Slave Dynasty. He took advantage of the political vacuum that was created due to the incompetence of the successors of Balban. To occupy the throne, he only had to remove the infant Sultan Kaimurs. On June 13 1290, Malik Firuz ascended the throne of Delhi as Jalal-ud-din Firuz Shah. Khaljis were basically Central Asians but had lived in Afghanistan for so long that they had become different from the Turks in terms of customs and manners. Thus the coming of Khaljis to power was more than a dynastic change. As majority of the Muslim population of Delhi was Turk, the arrival of a Khalji ruler was not much welcomed. Yet Jalal-ud-din managed to win the hearts of the people through his mildness and generosity. He retained most of the officers holding key positions in the Slave Dynasty. His own nephew and son-in-law Alauddin Khalji, killed Jalal-ud-din and took over as the new ruler. From 1296 AD to 1316 AD Alauddin Khilji dominated the Delhi sultanate with many courageous achievements. Soon after becoming the Sultan of Delhi Alauddin Khilji in 1297 AD went out to win over the various parts of Gujarat state Ala- ud-din also was able to implement startling economic reforms, although their effects were probably restricted to Delhi and the 100 mile radius around it. Nevertheless this was truly creditable for he achieved what modern governments in India have not completely achieved. Ala-ud-din re-organized the market so that there were fixed prices which were affordable, he developed warehousing facilities to ensure ready stock of goods, the government entered the business of transportation and provided facilities for the swift movement of goods. Alauddin’s reign is marked by innovative administrative and revenue reforms, market control regulations and a whirlwind period of conquests. It is considered the golden period of the Khalji rule. However, before the death of Alauddin, his house was divided into two camps. This resulted in the ultimate collapse of the Khalji dynasty. He died on January 1316 due to an acute health condition.

The third and last ruler of the Khilji dynasty in India was Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah. He was the weakest ruler of all and during his reign, all taxes and penalties were abolished. He released all prisoners of war who were captured after waging gruesome battles. He was ultimately murdered by Khusru Khan and this ended the Khilji dynasty in India.

Summary on the Khilji Dynasty of Delhi Sultanate :

The Khiljis served under the Ilbari dynasty of Delhi. Malik Firuz was the founder of the Khilji Dynasty who was originally the Ariz-I-Mumalik appointed by Kaiqubad during the days of the decline of the Ilbari Dynasty. He took advantage of the political vacuum and ascended the throne of Delhi as Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji.

The Khilji Dynasty was the second dynasty of Delhi Sultanate who came from Central Asia. In course of time they adopted the Khura Sanian's urbane culture and certain Afghan custom and social traditions from Ghaznavids. Therefore, the court of Khiljis was of multi-ethnical background with people of Persian, Indian, Arab and Turkish origin. This marked an end to the monopolization of power and racial dictatorship by Ilbari Turks and also led to the widening of the social base of the ruling class. Here, we are giving a complete detailed summary on the Khilji Dynasty of Delhi Sultanate.

Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji (AD 1290-96) :

Malik Feroz, the founder of Khalji dynasty, ascended the throne on 3rd June, 1290 as Jalaluddin Firoz Shah. The Khaljis were Central Asian in origin but had lived in Afghanistan so long that they had become different from the Turks in their customs and manners. The Muslim population of Delhi was overwhelmingly Turkish and did not react favorably to the change. So Firoz enthroned himself at Kaikubad and preferred to stay there for some time. Soon, the mildness and generosity of Firoz removed all popular prejudice against him, and he formally entered the city and took residence in the old palace. He came to power after the overthrow of the so- called Slave Dynasty. As regards an estimate of Jalaluddin, he was successful general before becoming the king but gave up the policy of aggression after becoming the Sultan. He followed the policy of peace and reconciliation towards all. He was very modest. It is stated that he did not ride in the courtyard of the palace of Balban and also refused to sit upon it on the ground that he used to stand before it as a servant. When he ascended the throne, he adopted the policy of appeasement by retaining some of the leading officers of the past, Alauddin Kishlu Khan famous as Malik Chajju, a nephew of Balban and a sole survival of old dynasty, was permitted to retain his governorship of Karah- Manikpur. A couple of months after his accession Malik Chajju pressed his claim to the throne and assumed royal title at Karah. He started for Delhi with a large army but was stopped near Badaun and defeated. So his revolt not be successful.

His policy to deal with the thieves and thugs was not based on the harsh and severe punishments. It is stated that once a number of thieves were arrested and brought before the Sultan. Instead of punishing them, he gave a lecture on the evils of stealing. On another accession thousands of thugs and murderers were captured. Instead of punishing them the Sultan sent them to Bengal in boats down the Gangas and there they were set free. Firoz was more successful in his a campaign against the Mongols. In 1992, a vast horde of Mongols under Abdullah was overpowered and they withdrew. Ulghu, a descendant of Chengiz Khan decided to stay back. He accepted Islam with 4000 of his followers and the Sultan gave his daughter in marriage. According to Dr.K. Lal, “Firoz was failure as a king, a perfect gentleman and one of the most pious Muslims of his time”. The death of Firoz was the exceptional case in history. A plot was hatched by his nephew Alauddin, to kill him in order to occupy the throne, to which he had not a shadow of claim either by divine or by human law. When Sultan met his nephew and son- in- law with few unarmed attendants, Sultan embraced his nephew, on the signal of Alauddin, Sultan was given two swords- blow. Later, the head of Sultan was cut from his body and the other followers of Sultan were also put to death.

1. He came to the throne at the age of seventy and ruled for six years, but did not dare to sit on the throne of Balban whom he had served earlier. He made Kilokhari as his capital.

2. He adopted a conciliatory policy towards the nobles of earlier regime and even the Mongols. So, he appointed Malik Chajju who was a Balban's nephew, as the Governor of Kara, but he rebelled later.

3. One of the most important events of his reign was the invasion of Devagiri, the capital of the Yadava king, Raja Ramachandradeva, in the Deccan, by Ali Gurshasp, the nephew and son-in-law of the sultan, and the Governor of Kara.

4. After his successful campaign, Ali Gurshasp invited the Sultan to Kara to receive the enormous wealth. Jalaluddin came to Kara in July 1296, where he was murdered by Ali Gurshasp, who proclaimed himself the Sultan with the title of Alauddin.

Alauddin Khilji (AD 1296-1316) :

Alauddin Khalji was the nephew and son- in- law of Jalaluddin Khalji. After the downfall of the Malik Chajju and after being appointed the governor of Karah near Allahabad, he won over the confidence of the Sultan by handing over a large amount of booty to him which he had collected in the expedition of Malwa in 1292. He had won great reputation as a soldier. In 1296, after a treacherous murder of his uncle Jalaluddin Firoz Khalji, he proceeded to Delhi to acquire the throne. There, the widow of Firoz had set up one of her sons Qadir Khan on the throne. But Alauddin was very clever for her. He won over a large number of ministers and nobles to his side with the help of gold and money. So he silenced all murmurs of disapproval and discontent by stopping the mouths of people with gold. The army was also won over by lavish distribution of wealth and presents. The cruel measures he adopted to secure his ill- gotten throne showed clearly that Alauddin was a heartless tyrant. He had no regard for justice. But in spite of his vices it must be said that he was brave soldier and a vigorous ruler.

Alauddin was not only a great military leader but a great administrator. He crushed the power of nobility to bring about peace in the country. He confiscated their excess amount of money and property and put a ban on their social gatherings and prohibited them to use wine. He did not allow the Ulemas to interfere in the political affairs of the State. He is also credited to have introduced various reforms on the land revenue and military departments. His control of the markets is regarded as one of the marvels of medieval statesmanship. There prevailed complete peace and tranquility during his reign. Alauddin was a great patron of learning. Amir Khusrau was patronized by him.

He largely extended the frontiers of the Muslim dominions in India and effectively checked the Mongols in roads. Alauddin was a great military general. He dreamt to become another Alexander. Sultan maintained a strong army and punished the Mongols so terribly that they dared not to attack India again. He conquered most of Hindu states in the North and over- ran whole of the South. All his military exploits were crowned with success. Alauddin treatment of Hindus was very severe. They were forced to pay land revenue at a higher rate. They were also required to pay several unjustified taxes. They were taxed so heavily that no Hindu could afford to ride a horse or wear fine clothes and carry arms. Besides, for administrative success, he kept a strict eye on the movements of his officials and people. So for this purpose he organized an efficient spy system. They were kept at the provincial headquarters, in markets and in all the units of the army. This system kept the nobles in terror and Sultan remained well- informed about the all good and bad things. Although, Alauddin was quite illiterate but he had great administrative and organizing qualities. He laid the foundation of highly organized administrative machinery through his reforms.

• He was the greatest ruler of the Khilji Dynasty and was the first Muslim ruler to extend his empire right up to the extreme South of India. He lavishly distributed money and gold among his people, noble and ministers so that they might forget the murder of Jalal-ud-din and support him.
• He was the first ruler of Delhi Sultanate who did not ask for manshur (letter of investiture) from the Caliph but called himself the deputy of the Caliph.
• He concentrated all power of the state in his own hands; therefore, the period marked the zenith of despotic government as well.
• Alauddin Khilji is said to have been poisoned by Malik Kafur. He died in January 1316.

Mongol Expansion into South Asia :

He also defended this region from the ravaging Mongols who controlled most of Asia back then. Mongols were utterly ruthless, divided into different tribes and attacked countries from multiple places. They were known for their brutality. Khilji kept India, its culture and its people safe from the Mongols.

Early Mongol attacks :

Ala-ud-din had to face Mongol attack from the time he assumed the power of the Sultanate. From the year 1296 A.D. to 1308 A.D. every year Mongals invaded Delhi. The Mongols attacked Delhi repeatedly. The existence of Sultan Shahi became endangered. But Alauddin checked allthe attacks with courage and determination. At the same time, he made the security of the northwestfrontier strong and firm.

Mongol Policy of Alauddin :

• During the early years of the reign of Alauddin, the Mongols invaded the sultanate several times and even plundered Delhi and adjoining districts, but they were always defeated.
• He adopted "blood and iron" policy of Balban in tackling the Mongol menace. So, he built a protecting wall around Delhi and repaired the old forts on the route of Mongols.
• Strong military consignments were posted at Samana and Dipalpur.
• Increased the numerical strength of an army. Appointed to his trusted commanders, including Ghazi Malik (later Sultan Ghiyassudin Tughluq), as warden of the North Western marches.

Defeat of Mongols at Battle of Amroha :

The Battle of Amroha was fought on 20 December 1305 between the armies of the Delhi Sultanate of India and the Mongol Chagatai Khanate of Central Asia. The Delhi force led by Malik Nayak defeated the Mongol army led by Ali Beg and Tartaq near Amroha in present-day Uttar Pradesh.

Background :

India’s North-West border was attacked by the Mongols many times from the past years. They had already suffered two defeats against armies serving the Sultan 'Ala ud-Din, at Jalandhar in 1298 and Kili in 1299. Sultan Alauddin Khalji, had been working on fortification of his northern borders in an effort to strengthen his defenses. He had fortified his forts that lied along the borders and equipped with larger garrisons. Khalji had heavily armed the forts and trained the army specializing to handle the attacks, under the command of an special governor, whose mission was managing and guarding the border areas. Despite such massive preparations, the Mongols lead by Ali Beg and Tartaq arrived from Punjab and marched towards Amroha in 1305. The Mongols had traveled advancing south-east, following the Himalayas and plundering all in their way until they reached Amroha.
'Ala ud-din responded immediately by sending an army commanded by Malik Kafur Hazardinarai (one of his personal slaves) and Malik Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlug (a future sultan) to engage the invaders (Mangols).

Battle :

Alauddin sent a 30,000-strong cavalry led by Malik Nayak to defeat the Mongols. Malik Nayak's subordinate commanders included Bahram Aibah, Tughluq, Mahmud Sartiah, Qarmshi, Qutta, Takli, and Tulak. This army faced the Mongols somewhere in present-day Amroha district on 20 December 1305.

The Mongols launched one or two weak attacks on the Delhi army. In words of the Delhi chronicler Amir Khusrau, they were "like an army of mosquitoes which tries to move against a strong wind". The Delhi army inflicted a crushing defeat upon the invaders. According to another Delhi chronicler Ziauddin Barani, Alauddin captured 20,000 horses belonging to dead Mongols after the battle was won.

The Delhi force surprised the Mongols, who were on their way back to Central Asia with their plunder and inflicted a heavy defeat on them. The Mongol generals, Ali Beg and Tartaq, were captured along with 8,000 of their men, brought back to Siri Fort in Delhi.

Aftermath :

Alauddin organized a grand durbar (court) in Delhi to receive Malik Nayak and his victorious army. Alauddin was seated on a throne at Chautra-i Subhani, and the Delhi army stood in double row, forming a long queue. According to Barani, a huge crowd gathered to see this event, leading to exorbitant increase in the price of a cup of water.

The Mongol commanders Ali Beg and Tartaq, who had surrendered, were presented before Alauddin with other Mongol prisoners. According to Amir Khusrau, Alauddin ordered some of the captives to be killed, and others to be imprisoned. However, Barani states that Alauddin ordered all captives to be killed by having them trampled under elephants' feet. The number of these captives was around 9,000. The 16th century historian Firishta claims that the heads of 8,000 Mongols were used to build the Siri Fort commissioned by Alauddin.

Amir Khusrau and another chronicler Isami state that Alauddin spared the lives of Ali Beg and Tartaq (probably because of their high ranks). According to Amir Khusrau, one of these commanders died "without any harm being done to him", and the other was "left alone". He ambiguously adds that Alauddin "was so successful in sport that he took their lives in one game after another". According to Isami, Alauddin made the two Mongol commanders Amirs (officials with high status), and also gave each of them an India-born slave girl. Two months later, Tartaq started demanding answers about the fate of his army and his belongings, in a state of drunken stupor. As a result, Alauddin ordered him to be killed. Sometime later, Ali Beg was also killed because of "the evil in his heart".

Historian Peter Jackson speculates that Ali Beg and Tartaq might have been killed when a large number of Mongols in Delhi rebelled against Alauddin, prompting the Sultan to order a massacre of all the Mongols in his empire.

Reforms and Experiments :

The reforms of Alauddin aimed at improving the administration, strengthening the army, and gearing up the machinery of land revenue administration, expand and improve the cultivation and welfare of the people.

Administrative measures for prevention of rebellions :

• The sale and use of liquor and intoxicants was prohibited in Delhi and neighbouring areas. Sultan himself gave up drinking.
• He forbade parties and marriage relations among the nobles without his permission.
• He confiscated many jagirs and estates and stopped all pensions and allowances. All religious endowments and grants of lands (waqf and inam) by the state were revoked.
• He established a network of spices all over his kingdom.

Revenue/Agrarian Reforms :

• Zabita regulation Biswa declared as the standard unit of measurement of cultivable land.
• Land revenue (Kharaj) was fixed at half of the produce on the basis of paimash (measurement) in the Doab i.e., the territory between the Ganga and the Jamuna. Suppression of the hereditary revenue collectors-Rai, Rana, Rawat (top level) and Khut, Muqaddam, Chaudhari (village level). House tax (ghari) and pasture tax (charai) were also levied.
• Land revenue was calculated in kind but demanded in cash.
• Establishment of a new revenue department, Diwan-i-Mustakharaj. Khuts were a new set of intermediaries who arose at the parganah or shiq (district) level. Amir Khusrau, for the first time, referred to them as zamindars.

Market Control or Economic Regulation :

• According to Barani, the economic regulations were primarily a military measure, i.e., to maintain a large and efficient army for keeping the Mongols in check. But, Amir Khusrau considers it a welfare measure to ensure the supply of important commodities at reasonable rates.
• Zabawit or detailed regulations were made to fix the cost of all commodities from food grains to horses cattle and slaves.
• He established three separate markets in Delhi for - food grains, costly cloths, horses, slaves and cattle.
• The markets were controlled by two officers, Diwan-i-Riyasat and Shahana- i-Mandi.
• He gave loans to the rich Multan merchants for purchasing cloth from different parts of the empire and to bring them for sale in the Sarai-Adl (cloth market at an open place inside Badaun gate.)
• Horses were sold directly to the military department (Diwan-i-Arz),
• Food grains were stocked at the warehouses set up by the state itself and were released during famine or shortage of supply.
• The Karwanis or Banjaras carried the grains from villages to Delhi. No hoarding was allowed and all merchants were registered at state daftars.

Military Reforms :

• The realisation of land revenue in cash enabled Alauddin to pay his soldiers in cash. He was the first sultan to do so.
• Direct recruitment of the soldiers by Arz-i-Mamalik.
• Like Balban, he built several forts on North West frontier and repaired old ones.
• Introduction of Daag (branding the horses) and Huliya or Chehra (descriptive rolls of soldiers) system.
• Introduction of three grades of soldiers: Foot soldiers; Soldiers with one horse (ek-aspa); Soldiers with two horses (do-asps)

Art and Learning :

• Though Alauddin was illiterate, he was a great patron of art and learning.
• Both Amir Khusrau and Mir Hasan Dehlvi enjoyed his patronage.
• He built a new city called Siri, enlarged the Qutabi mosque and erected a gateway.
• He built the Jamait Khana Masjid at the dargah of Nizam-ud-din Auliya, and Alai Darwaza near Qutb Minar.
• He began the construction of Alai Minar near Qutub Minar but could not complete it.

After the death of Alauddin, his favourite Kafur, tried to usurp the throne. He placed Shihab-ud-din Omar, an infant son of the late sultan, on the throne. But Kafur was murdered after five weeks. Mubarak Khilji, another son of Alauddin ruled for four years. He abolished all the agrarian and market control regulations of his father. He was murdered by Khusrau Malik.

Khusrau Shah proved a great tyrant and was defeated and beheaded by Ghazi Tughluq, the warden of the marches and the Governor of Punjab. Ghazi Tughluq became the new ruler of the Delhi sultanate under the title of Ghias-ud-din Tughluq. Thus, Khilji dynasty was replaced by Tughluq dynasty.

Last days:

Last life of Alauddin was very painful and tragic. Taking the opportunity of his inability hiscommander Malik Kafur assumed the entire power. He became hopeless and sick and died in the year1316 A.D.

End of Khilji Rule:

Within four years of Alauddin’s death, the rule of the Khiljis came to an end. Ala-ud-din’s younger son Shahabuddin was dethroned by his third son Mubarak Shah, who ruled from 1316 to1320 A.D. He again was killed by a conspiracy by Nasir-ud-din (1320); finally he was dethroned and killedin a battle by one Ghazi Malik, the governor of Punjab.

 

[Buddhistforlife]

Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320) :

Jalal-ud-din Khilji overthrew Balban’s successors and founded the Khilji Dynasty, which ruled large parts of South Asia between 1290 and 1320. That was the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate of India. “The Khilji dynasty was named after a village in Afghanistan. Some historians believe that they wereAfghans, but Bharani and Wolse Haig explain in their accounts that the rulers from this dynasty who came to India, though they had temporarily settled in Afghanistan, were originally Turkic”.The Khiljis were a Central Asian Turkic dynasty but having been long domiciled in Afghanistan, and adopted some Afghan habits and customs. They were treated as Afghans in Delhi Court”. The three sultans of the Khalji dynasty were noted by historians for their faithlessness and ferocity. To some extent, the Khilji usurpation was a move toward the recognition of a shifting balance of power attributable to the developments outside the territory of the Delhi Sultanate (in Central Asia and Iran) and to the changes which followed the establishment of Turkic rule in northern India. The court languages of the Khiljis were Persian, followed by Arabic, their native Turkoman language and some northern-Indian dialects. Although it was not their native language, the Khilji sultans encouraged the use of Persian. This co-existence of different languages gave birth to an early form of Urdu. According to Ibn Batuta, the Khiljis encouraged conversion to Islam by making it customary to have the convert presented to the sultan (who would place a robe on him and reward him with gold bracelets). During Ikhtiyar Uddin Bakhtiyar Khilji’s control of Bengal, Muslim missionaries in India achieved their greatest success in the number of converts to Islam.

The founder of the Khalji Dynasty in South Asia, Malik Firuz, was originally the Ariz-i-Mumalik appointed by Kaiqubad during the days of decline of the Slave Dynasty. He took advantage of the political vacuum that was created due to the incompetence of the successors of Balban. To occupy the throne, he only had to remove the infant Sultan Kaimurs. On June 13 1290, Malik Firuz ascended the throne of Delhi as Jalal-ud-din Firuz Shah. Khaljis were basically Central Asians but had lived in Afghanistan for so long that they had become different from the Turks in terms of customs and manners. Thus the coming of Khaljis to power was more than a dynastic change. As majority of the Muslim population of Delhi was Turk, the arrival of a Khalji ruler was not much welcomed. Yet Jalal-ud-din managed to win the hearts of the people through his mildness and generosity. He retained most of the officers holding key positions in the Slave Dynasty. His own nephew and son-in-law Alauddin Khalji, killed Jalal-ud-din and took over as the new ruler. From 1296 AD to 1316 AD Alauddin Khilji dominated the Delhi sultanate with many courageous achievements. Soon after becoming the Sultan of Delhi Alauddin Khilji in 1297 AD went out to win over the various parts of Gujarat state Ala- ud-din also was able to implement startling economic reforms, although their effects were probably restricted to Delhi and the 100 mile radius around it. Nevertheless this was truly creditable for he achieved what modern governments in India have not completely achieved. Ala-ud-din re-organized the market so that there were fixed prices which were affordable, he developed warehousing facilities to ensure ready stock of goods, the government entered the business of transportation and provided facilities for the swift movement of goods. Alauddin’s reign is marked by innovative administrative and revenue reforms, market control regulations and a whirlwind period of conquests. It is considered the golden period of the Khalji rule. However, before the death of Alauddin, his house was divided into two camps. This resulted in the ultimate collapse of the Khalji dynasty. He died on January 1316 due to an acute health condition.

The third and last ruler of the Khilji dynasty in India was Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah. He was the weakest ruler of all and during his reign, all taxes and penalties were abolished. He released all prisoners of war who were captured after waging gruesome battles. He was ultimately murdered by Khusru Khan and this ended the Khilji dynasty in India.

Summary on the Khilji Dynasty of Delhi Sultanate :

The Khiljis served under the Ilbari dynasty of Delhi. Malik Firuz was the founder of the Khilji Dynasty who was originally the Ariz-I-Mumalik appointed by Kaiqubad during the days of the decline of the Ilbari Dynasty. He took advantage of the political vacuum and ascended the throne of Delhi as Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji.

The Khilji Dynasty was the second dynasty of Delhi Sultanate who came from Central Asia. In course of time they adopted the Khura Sanian's urbane culture and certain Afghan custom and social traditions from Ghaznavids. Therefore, the court of Khiljis was of multi-ethnical background with people of Persian, Indian, Arab and Turkish origin. This marked an end to the monopolization of power and racial dictatorship by Ilbari Turks and also led to the widening of the social base of the ruling class. Here, we are giving a complete detailed summary on the Khilji Dynasty of Delhi Sultanate.

Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji (AD 1290-96) :

Malik Feroz, the founder of Khalji dynasty, ascended the throne on 3rd June, 1290 as Jalaluddin Firoz Shah. The Khaljis were Central Asian in origin but had lived in Afghanistan so long that they had become different from the Turks in their customs and manners. The Muslim population of Delhi was overwhelmingly Turkish and did not react favorably to the change. So Firoz enthroned himself at Kaikubad and preferred to stay there for some time. Soon, the mildness and generosity of Firoz removed all popular prejudice against him, and he formally entered the city and took residence in the old palace. He came to power after the overthrow of the so- called Slave Dynasty. As regards an estimate of Jalaluddin, he was successful general before becoming the king but gave up the policy of aggression after becoming the Sultan. He followed the policy of peace and reconciliation towards all. He was very modest. It is stated that he did not ride in the courtyard of the palace of Balban and also refused to sit upon it on the ground that he used to stand before it as a servant. When he ascended the throne, he adopted the policy of appeasement by retaining some of the leading officers of the past, Alauddin Kishlu Khan famous as Malik Chajju, a nephew of Balban and a sole survival of old dynasty, was permitted to retain his governorship of Karah- Manikpur. A couple of months after his accession Malik Chajju pressed his claim to the throne and assumed royal title at Karah. He started for Delhi with a large army but was stopped near Badaun and defeated. So his revolt not be successful.

His policy to deal with the thieves and thugs was not based on the harsh and severe punishments. It is stated that once a number of thieves were arrested and brought before the Sultan. Instead of punishing them, he gave a lecture on the evils of stealing. On another accession thousands of thugs and murderers were captured. Instead of punishing them the Sultan sent them to Bengal in boats down the Gangas and there they were set free. Firoz was more successful in his a campaign against the Mongols. In 1992, a vast horde of Mongols under Abdullah was overpowered and they withdrew. Ulghu, a descendant of Chengiz Khan decided to stay back. He accepted Islam with 4000 of his followers and the Sultan gave his daughter in marriage. According to Dr.K. Lal, “Firoz was failure as a king, a perfect gentleman and one of the most pious Muslims of his time”. The death of Firoz was the exceptional case in history. A plot was hatched by his nephew Alauddin, to kill him in order to occupy the throne, to which he had not a shadow of claim either by divine or by human law. When Sultan met his nephew and son- in- law with few unarmed attendants, Sultan embraced his nephew, on the signal of Alauddin, Sultan was given two swords- blow. Later, the head of Sultan was cut from his body and the other followers of Sultan were also put to death.

View attachment 562560

1. He came to the throne at the age of seventy and ruled for six years, but did not dare to sit on the throne of Balban whom he had served earlier. He made Kilokhari as his capital.

2. He adopted a conciliatory policy towards the nobles of earlier regime and even the Mongols. So, he appointed Malik Chajju who was a Balban's nephew, as the Governor of Kara, but he rebelled later.

3. One of the most important events of his reign was the invasion of Devagiri, the capital of the Yadava king, Raja Ramachandradeva, in the Deccan, by Ali Gurshasp, the nephew and son-in-law of the sultan, and the Governor of Kara.

4. After his successful campaign, Ali Gurshasp invited the Sultan to Kara to receive the enormous wealth. Jalaluddin came to Kara in July 1296, where he was murdered by Ali Gurshasp, who proclaimed himself the Sultan with the title of Alauddin.

Alauddin Khilji (AD 1296-1316) :

Alauddin Khalji was the nephew and son- in- law of Jalaluddin Khalji. After the downfall of the Malik Chajju and after being appointed the governor of Karah near Allahabad, he won over the confidence of the Sultan by handing over a large amount of booty to him which he had collected in the expedition of Malwa in 1292. He had won great reputation as a soldier. In 1296, after a treacherous murder of his uncle Jalaluddin Firoz Khalji, he proceeded to Delhi to acquire the throne. There, the widow of Firoz had set up one of her sons Qadir Khan on the throne. But Alauddin was very clever for her. He won over a large number of ministers and nobles to his side with the help of gold and money. So he silenced all murmurs of disapproval and discontent by stopping the mouths of people with gold. The army was also won over by lavish distribution of wealth and presents. The cruel measures he adopted to secure his ill- gotten throne showed clearly that Alauddin was a heartless tyrant. He had no regard for justice. But in spite of his vices it must be said that he was brave soldier and a vigorous ruler.

Alauddin was not only a great military leader but a great administrator. He crushed the power of nobility to bring about peace in the country. He confiscated their excess amount of money and property and put a ban on their social gatherings and prohibited them to use wine. He did not allow the Ulemas to interfere in the political affairs of the State. He is also credited to have introduced various reforms on the land revenue and military departments. His control of the markets is regarded as one of the marvels of medieval statesmanship. There prevailed complete peace and tranquility during his reign. Alauddin was a great patron of learning. Amir Khusrau was patronized by him.

He largely extended the frontiers of the Muslim dominions in India and effectively checked the Mongols in roads. Alauddin was a great military general. He dreamt to become another Alexander. Sultan maintained a strong army and punished the Mongols so terribly that they dared not to attack India again. He conquered most of Hindu states in the North and over- ran whole of the South. All his military exploits were crowned with success. Alauddin treatment of Hindus was very severe. They were forced to pay land revenue at a higher rate. They were also required to pay several unjustified taxes. They were taxed so heavily that no Hindu could afford to ride a horse or wear fine clothes and carry arms. Besides, for administrative success, he kept a strict eye on the movements of his officials and people. So for this purpose he organized an efficient spy system. They were kept at the provincial headquarters, in markets and in all the units of the army. This system kept the nobles in terror and Sultan remained well- informed about the all good and bad things. Although, Alauddin was quite illiterate but he had great administrative and organizing qualities. He laid the foundation of highly organized administrative machinery through his reforms.

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• He was the greatest ruler of the Khilji Dynasty and was the first Muslim ruler to extend his empire right up to the extreme South of India. He lavishly distributed money and gold among his people, noble and ministers so that they might forget the murder of Jalal-ud-din and support him.
• He was the first ruler of Delhi Sultanate who did not ask for manshur (letter of investiture) from the Caliph but called himself the deputy of the Caliph.
• He concentrated all power of the state in his own hands; therefore, the period marked the zenith of despotic government as well.
• Alauddin Khilji is said to have been poisoned by Malik Kafur. He died in January 1316.

Mongol Expansion into South Asia :

He also defended this region from the ravaging Mongols who controlled most of Asia back then. Mongols were utterly ruthless, divided into different tribes and attacked countries from multiple places. They were known for their brutality. Khilji kept India, its culture and its people safe from the Mongols.

Early Mongol attacks :

Ala-ud-din had to face Mongol attack from the time he assumed the power of the Sultanate. From the year 1296 A.D. to 1308 A.D. every year Mongals invaded Delhi. The Mongols attacked Delhi repeatedly. The existence of Sultan Shahi became endangered. But Alauddin checked allthe attacks with courage and determination. At the same time, he made the security of the northwestfrontier strong and firm.

Mongol Policy of Alauddin :

• During the early years of the reign of Alauddin, the Mongols invaded the sultanate several times and even plundered Delhi and adjoining districts, but they were always defeated.
• He adopted "blood and iron" policy of Balban in tackling the Mongol menace. So, he built a protecting wall around Delhi and repaired the old forts on the route of Mongols.
• Strong military consignments were posted at Samana and Dipalpur.
• Increased the numerical strength of an army. Appointed to his trusted commanders, including Ghazi Malik (later Sultan Ghiyassudin Tughluq), as warden of the North Western marches.

Defeat of Mongols at Battle of Amroha :

The Battle of Amroha was fought on 20 December 1305 between the armies of the Delhi Sultanate of India and the Mongol Chagatai Khanate of Central Asia. The Delhi force led by Malik Nayak defeated the Mongol army led by Ali Beg and Tartaq near Amroha in present-day Uttar Pradesh.

Background :

India’s North-West border was attacked by the Mongols many times from the past years. They had already suffered two defeats against armies serving the Sultan 'Ala ud-Din, at Jalandhar in 1298 and Kili in 1299. Sultan Alauddin Khalji, had been working on fortification of his northern borders in an effort to strengthen his defenses. He had fortified his forts that lied along the borders and equipped with larger garrisons. Khalji had heavily armed the forts and trained the army specializing to handle the attacks, under the command of an special governor, whose mission was managing and guarding the border areas. Despite such massive preparations, the Mongols lead by Ali Beg and Tartaq arrived from Punjab and marched towards Amroha in 1305. The Mongols had traveled advancing south-east, following the Himalayas and plundering all in their way until they reached Amroha.
'Ala ud-din responded immediately by sending an army commanded by Malik Kafur Hazardinarai (one of his personal slaves) and Malik Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlug (a future sultan) to engage the invaders (Mangols).

Battle :

Alauddin sent a 30,000-strong cavalry led by Malik Nayak to defeat the Mongols. Malik Nayak's subordinate commanders included Bahram Aibah, Tughluq, Mahmud Sartiah, Qarmshi, Qutta, Takli, and Tulak. This army faced the Mongols somewhere in present-day Amroha district on 20 December 1305.

The Mongols launched one or two weak attacks on the Delhi army. In words of the Delhi chronicler Amir Khusrau, they were "like an army of mosquitoes which tries to move against a strong wind". The Delhi army inflicted a crushing defeat upon the invaders. According to another Delhi chronicler Ziauddin Barani, Alauddin captured 20,000 horses belonging to dead Mongols after the battle was won.

The Delhi force surprised the Mongols, who were on their way back to Central Asia with their plunder and inflicted a heavy defeat on them. The Mongol generals, Ali Beg and Tartaq, were captured along with 8,000 of their men, brought back to Siri Fort in Delhi.

Aftermath :

Alauddin organized a grand durbar (court) in Delhi to receive Malik Nayak and his victorious army. Alauddin was seated on a throne at Chautra-i Subhani, and the Delhi army stood in double row, forming a long queue. According to Barani, a huge crowd gathered to see this event, leading to exorbitant increase in the price of a cup of water.

The Mongol commanders Ali Beg and Tartaq, who had surrendered, were presented before Alauddin with other Mongol prisoners. According to Amir Khusrau, Alauddin ordered some of the captives to be killed, and others to be imprisoned. However, Barani states that Alauddin ordered all captives to be killed by having them trampled under elephants' feet. The number of these captives was around 9,000. The 16th century historian Firishta claims that the heads of 8,000 Mongols were used to build the Siri Fort commissioned by Alauddin.

Amir Khusrau and another chronicler Isami state that Alauddin spared the lives of Ali Beg and Tartaq (probably because of their high ranks). According to Amir Khusrau, one of these commanders died "without any harm being done to him", and the other was "left alone". He ambiguously adds that Alauddin "was so successful in sport that he took their lives in one game after another". According to Isami, Alauddin made the two Mongol commanders Amirs (officials with high status), and also gave each of them an India-born slave girl. Two months later, Tartaq started demanding answers about the fate of his army and his belongings, in a state of drunken stupor. As a result, Alauddin ordered him to be killed. Sometime later, Ali Beg was also killed because of "the evil in his heart".

Historian Peter Jackson speculates that Ali Beg and Tartaq might have been killed when a large number of Mongols in Delhi rebelled against Alauddin, prompting the Sultan to order a massacre of all the Mongols in his empire.

Reforms and Experiments :

The reforms of Alauddin aimed at improving the administration, strengthening the army, and gearing up the machinery of land revenue administration, expand and improve the cultivation and welfare of the people.

Administrative measures for prevention of rebellions :

• The sale and use of liquor and intoxicants was prohibited in Delhi and neighbouring areas. Sultan himself gave up drinking.
• He forbade parties and marriage relations among the nobles without his permission.
• He confiscated many jagirs and estates and stopped all pensions and allowances. All religious endowments and grants of lands (waqf and inam) by the state were revoked.
• He established a network of spices all over his kingdom.

Revenue/Agrarian Reforms :

• Zabita regulation Biswa declared as the standard unit of measurement of cultivable land.
• Land revenue (Kharaj) was fixed at half of the produce on the basis of paimash (measurement) in the Doab i.e., the territory between the Ganga and the Jamuna. Suppression of the hereditary revenue collectors-Rai, Rana, Rawat (top level) and Khut, Muqaddam, Chaudhari (village level). House tax (ghari) and pasture tax (charai) were also levied.
• Land revenue was calculated in kind but demanded in cash.
• Establishment of a new revenue department, Diwan-i-Mustakharaj. Khuts were a new set of intermediaries who arose at the parganah or shiq (district) level. Amir Khusrau, for the first time, referred to them as zamindars.

Market Control or Economic Regulation :

• According to Barani, the economic regulations were primarily a military measure, i.e., to maintain a large and efficient army for keeping the Mongols in check. But, Amir Khusrau considers it a welfare measure to ensure the supply of important commodities at reasonable rates.
• Zabawit or detailed regulations were made to fix the cost of all commodities from food grains to horses cattle and slaves.
• He established three separate markets in Delhi for - food grains, costly cloths, horses, slaves and cattle.
• The markets were controlled by two officers, Diwan-i-Riyasat and Shahana- i-Mandi.
• He gave loans to the rich Multan merchants for purchasing cloth from different parts of the empire and to bring them for sale in the Sarai-Adl (cloth market at an open place inside Badaun gate.)
• Horses were sold directly to the military department (Diwan-i-Arz),
• Food grains were stocked at the warehouses set up by the state itself and were released during famine or shortage of supply.
• The Karwanis or Banjaras carried the grains from villages to Delhi. No hoarding was allowed and all merchants were registered at state daftars.

Military Reforms :

• The realisation of land revenue in cash enabled Alauddin to pay his soldiers in cash. He was the first sultan to do so.
• Direct recruitment of the soldiers by Arz-i-Mamalik.
• Like Balban, he built several forts on North West frontier and repaired old ones.
• Introduction of Daag (branding the horses) and Huliya or Chehra (descriptive rolls of soldiers) system.
• Introduction of three grades of soldiers: Foot soldiers; Soldiers with one horse (ek-aspa); Soldiers with two horses (do-asps)

Art and Learning :

• Though Alauddin was illiterate, he was a great patron of art and learning.
• Both Amir Khusrau and Mir Hasan Dehlvi enjoyed his patronage.
• He built a new city called Siri, enlarged the Qutabi mosque and erected a gateway.
• He built the Jamait Khana Masjid at the dargah of Nizam-ud-din Auliya, and Alai Darwaza near Qutb Minar.
• He began the construction of Alai Minar near Qutub Minar but could not complete it.

After the death of Alauddin, his favourite Kafur, tried to usurp the throne. He placed Shihab-ud-din Omar, an infant son of the late sultan, on the throne. But Kafur was murdered after five weeks. Mubarak Khilji, another son of Alauddin ruled for four years. He abolished all the agrarian and market control regulations of his father. He was murdered by Khusrau Malik.

Khusrau Shah proved a great tyrant and was defeated and beheaded by Ghazi Tughluq, the warden of the marches and the Governor of Punjab. Ghazi Tughluq became the new ruler of the Delhi sultanate under the title of Ghias-ud-din Tughluq. Thus, Khilji dynasty was replaced by Tughluq dynasty.

Last days:

Last life of Alauddin was very painful and tragic. Taking the opportunity of his inability hiscommander Malik Kafur assumed the entire power. He became hopeless and sick and died in the year1316 A.D.

End of Khilji Rule:

Within four years of Alauddin’s death, the rule of the Khiljis came to an end. Ala-ud-din’s younger son Shahabuddin was dethroned by his third son Mubarak Shah, who ruled from 1316 to1320 A.D. He again was killed by a conspiracy by Nasir-ud-din (1320); finally he was dethroned and killedin a battle by one Ghazi Malik, the governor of Punjab.

The Delhi sultanate was the worst Muslim empire known for committing horrible genocides and destruction of ancient civilizations. The Delhi sultanate and it's policies perhaps were much worse than the Ummayud Caliphate, Rashidun Caliphate and Abbasid Caliphate.

 

[Mamluk]

The Delhi sultanate was the worst Muslim empire known for committing horrible genocides and destruction of ancient civilizations. The Delhi sultanate and it's policies perhaps were much worse than the Ummayud Caliphate, Rashidun Caliphate and Abbasid Caliphate.

The Delhi Sultanate protected your collective asses from Mongols. Have some gratitude.

 

[Manidabest]

i dont know about dynasties but the time of Khulfa e rashideen was the best

 

[M. Sarmad]

@Pakistansdefender ... What you are saying is historically accurate and technically correct... But sometimes it's politically incorrect to disagree with the popular narrative/indoctrination..... So, better let it pass....

Pakistan Paindabad

 

[Hamza913]

What you are saying is historically accurate and technically correct

Rofl of course you agree with him.

 

[dexter]

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320–1413) :

The Tughlaqs were a Muslim family of Turkic origin. The dynasty reached its zenith point between AD 1330 and 1335 when Muhammad Bin Tughlaq led military campaign.

The etymology of the word "Tughluq" is not certain. The 16th century writer Firishta claims that it is a corruption of the Turkic term "Qutlugh", but this is doubtful. Literary, numismatic and epigraphic evidence makes it clear that Tughluq was the personal name of the dynasty's founder Ghiyath al-Din, and not an ancestral designation. Historians use the designation "Tughluq" to describe the entire dynasty as a matter of convenience, but the dynasty's kings did not use "Tughluq" as a surname: only Ghiyath al-Din's son Muhammad bin Tughluq called himself the son of Tughluq Shah ("bin Tughluq").

The ancestry of dynasty is debated among modern historians, because the earlier sources provide different information regarding it. Tughluq's court poet Badr-i Chach attempted to find a royal genealogy for the dynasty, but this can be dismissed as flattery. Another court poet Amir Khusrau, in his Tughluq Nama, states that Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq described himself as an unimportant man ("awara mard") in his early career. The contemporary Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta states that Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq belonged to the "Qarauna tribe of the Turks", who lived in the hilly region between Turkestan and Sindh. Ibn Battuta's source for this claim was the Sufisaint Rukn-ud-Din Abul Fateh, but the claim is not corroborated by any other contemporary source. Firishta, bsaed on the inquiries made at Lahore, wrote that Tughluq was a Turkic slave of the earlier emperor Balban, and that his mother came from a Jat family of India. No contemporary sources corroborate this claim.

Territory under Tughlaq dynasty of Dehli Sultanate

Rise to power :

The Khalji dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate before 1320. Its last ruler, Khusro Khan, was a Hindu who had been forcibly converted to Islam and then served the Delhi Sultanate as the general of its army for some time. Khusro Khan, along with Malik Kafur, had led numerous military campaigns on behalf of Alauddin Khalji, to expand the Sultanate and plunder non-Muslim kingdoms in India.

After Alauddin Khalji's death from illness in 1316, a series of palace arrests and assassinations followed, with Khusro Khan coming to power in June 1320 after killing licentious son of Alauddin Khalji, Mubarak Khalji. However, he lacked the support of the nobles and aristocrats of the Khalji dynasty in Delhi. Delhi's aristocracy invited Ghazi Malik, then the governor in Punjab under the Khaljis, to lead a coup in Delhi and remove Khusro Khan. In 1320, Ghazi Malik launched an attack and killed Khusro Khan to assume power.

Ibn Battuta's memoir on Tughlaq dynasty :

Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan Muslim traveller, left extensive notes on Tughlaq dynasty in his travel memoirs. Ibn Battuta arrived in India through the mountains of Afghanistan, in 1334, at the height of Tughlaq dynasty's geographic empire. On his way, he learnt that Sultan Muhammad Tughluq liked gifts from his visitors, and gave to his visitors gifts of far greater value in return. Ibn Battuta met Muhammad bin Tughluq, presenting him with gifts of arrows, camels, thirty horses, slaves and other goods. Muhammad bin Tughlaq responded by giving Ibn Battuta with a welcoming gift of 2,000 silver dinars, a furnished house and the job of a judge with an annual salary of 5,000 silver dinars that Ibn Battuta had the right to keep by collecting taxes from two and a half Hindu villages near Delhi.

In his memoirs about Tughlaq dynasty, Ibn Batutta recorded the history of Qutb complex which included Quwat al-Islam Mosque and the Qutb Minar. He noted the 7 year famine from 1335 AD, which killed thousands upon thousands of people near Delhi, while the Sultan was busy attacking rebellions. He was tough both against non-Muslims and Muslims. For example,

Not a week passed without the spilling of much Muslim blood and the running of streams of gore before the entrance of his palace. This included cutting people in half, skinning them alive, chopping off heads and displaying them on poles as a warning to others, or having prisoners tossed about by elephants with swords attached to their tusks.

— Ibn Battuta, Travel Memoirs (1334-1341, Delhi)

The Sultan was far too ready to shed blood. He punished small faults and great, without respect of persons, whether men of learning, piety or high station. Every day hundreds of people, chained, pinioned, and fettered, are brought to this hall, and those who are for execution are executed, for torture tortured, and those for beating beaten.

— Ibn Battuta, Chapter XV Rihla (Delhi)

In Tughlaq dynasty, the punishments were extended even to Muslim religious figures who were suspected rebellion. For example, Ibn Battuta mentions Sheikh Shinab al-Din, who was imprisoned and tortured as follows:

On the fourteen day, the Sultan sent him food, but he (Sheikh Shinab al-Din) refused to eat it. When the Sultan heard this he ordered that the sheikh should be fed human excrement [dissolved in water]. [His officials] spread out the sheikh on his back, opened his mouth and made him drink it (the excrement). On the following day, he was beheaded.

— Ibn Battuta, Travel Memoirs (1334-1341, Delhi)

Ibn Batutta wrote that Sultan's officials demanded bribes from him while he was in Delhi, as well as deducted 10% of any sums that Sultan gave to him. Towards the end of his stay in Tughluq dynasty court, Ibn Battuta came under suspicion for his friendship with a Sufi Muslim holy man. Both Ibn Battuta and the Sufi Muslim were arrested. While Ibn Battuta was allowed to leave India, the Sufi Muslim was killed as follows according to Ibn Battuta during the period he was under arrest:

(The Sultan) had the holy man's beard plucked out hair by hair, then banished him from Delhi. Later the Sultan ordered him to return to court, which the holy man refused to do. The man was arrested, tortured in the most horrible way, then beheaded.

— Ibn Battuta, Travel Memoirs (1334-1341, Delhi)

Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (1321-1325) :

Ghiyath-ud-din Tughlaq was the founder of Tughlaq Dynasty. His father Malik Tughlaq was a Turkish slave of Ghiyath-ud-din Balban and his mother was a Jat lady of Punjab. Their son distinguished himself in the service of the Sultans of Delhi, and for his brilliant and victorious campaigns against Mongols earned the title of Ghazi Malik. He was appointed as the Governor of Dipalpur by Ala-ud-din Khilji. The low-caste usurper Khusrau Khan had completely extinguished the family of Ala-ud-din Khilji, so the nobles called upon Ghazi Malik to ascend the throne. This he did under the title of Ghiyath-ud-din Tughlaq Shah, and became the first ruler of Tughlaq dynasty.

Ghiyath-ud-din was an experienced administrator. He proved a firm and wise ruler. He reestablished the military might of the Delhi Sultanate and subdued the rebellious rulers. Not only the revolt of Bengal dealt with, the kingdoms of Warangal and Madura annexed and Ghiyath-ud-din also conquered Tirhut on the borders of Nepal and most part of South Asia and annexed the territories of all those rulers who had defeated by him and hence became the master of more extensive empire than that of Ala-ud-din Khilji.

About Ghiyath-ud-din as an administrator, a modern Historian says:

“The administration of Ghiyath-ud-din was based upon the principles of justice and moderation. The land revenue was organized and the Sultan took great care to prevent abuses. Cultivators were treated well and officials were severely punished for their misconduct. The departments of Justice and Police worked efficiently, and the greatest security prevailed in the remotest parts of the empire.”

He attempted to improve the finances of the state and for this purpose he established the system of taxes. Barani tells that the king believed that people should ‘be taxed so that they are not blinded with wealth and so become discontented and rebellious; nor, on the other hand, be so reduced to poverty and destitution as to be unable to pursue their daily bread.’ He improved the means of communication and conditions of roads, bridges and canals.

Giyath-ud-din faced twin sided challenges both internal and external. The administration system was completely destroyed by the incapable successors of Ala-ud-din Khilji. The usurper Khusrau Khan emptied the state treasury completely by lavish expenditures on friends and nobles to obtain their support and had granted expensive gifts to them. When Ghiyas-ud-din assended the throne he felt the need to take those gifts back to reorganize the state treasury. This created a sense of disliking and enimity between the Sultan and the sufi saint Nizam-ud-din Auliya. Hadrat Nizam-ud-din Auliya received five lakh tankas from Khusrau, but when he was asked to refund the money, he replied that it had already been spent for the relief of the poor in his monastery. Ghiyath-ud-din did not pursue the matter but it was the beginning of an unpleasant relationship between the king and the Sheikh.

Ghiyath-ud-din died in 1325 as a result of the falling of a pavilion hastily constructed by his son at Afghanpur (near Delhi) to receive him before his ceremonial entry into the capital on return from his successful campaign in Bengal. There are conflicting accounts on whether this was an accident or a conspiracy by his son to usurp power, so it remains a bit of a mystery. After his death his son Muhammad bin Tughlaq proclaimed himself the Sultan.

Difficulties of Ghiyas-Ud-Din Tughluq Shah :

Ghiyas-ud-din faced both internal and external problems. The administrative setup established by Ala-ud-din was destroyed by his successors while no steps were taken to establish a new one. The nobles and the courtiers had become negligent towards their responsibilities and engaged themselves in physical pleasures. The Sultan had lost his prestige both among the nobility and the subjects.

Both Mubarak Shah and Khusrav Shah had distributed large amount of wealth among his nobles and subjects and, thereby, had exhausted the Sultan’s treasury. But above all was the difficulty of keeping provincial governors and feudatory chiefs under submission who were prepared to throw away the authority of the Sultan at any opportune moment. However, Ghiyas-ud-din faced all these difficulties and succeeded.

Domestic Policy of Ghiyas-Ud-Din Tughluq Shah :

The first task of Ghiyas-ud-din was to strengthen his position on the throne and for that he tried to conciliate the nobles and the people. He pursued a policy of conciliation mixed up with sternness towards the nobles. He succeeded in getting support from the Turkish nobles on the basis of race. But he tried to please even those nobles who had supported Khusrav against him.

He forgot their past and allowed them to enjoy their former posts. He also arranged for the marriages of girls of the Khalji family. But those nobles who were found confirmed supporters of the previous regime were devoid of their official positions and their jagirs were snatched away from them. However, he restored the jagirs of those people who were devoid of them during the regime of Ala- ud-din.

Ghiyas-ud-din was successful in getting loyalty of the nobles and his subjects by these measures. He also tried to take that wealth from the concerning people which was squandered by Khusrav to please them. He was partly successful in that. Many people returned it but some like Shaikh Nizam-ud-din Auliya refused to return it.

Ghiyas-ud-din attempted to improve the finances of the state and for that purpose, pursued the policy of encouraging agriculture and protecting cultivators. His twin objects were to increase the land under cultivation and improve the economic condition of the farmers. The state-demand of revenue was fixed between 1/5 to 1/3 of the produce. He ordered that the revenue be increased only gradually and, in no case, beyond 1/11 to 1/10 from a province in a year.

In case of famine, the peasants were exempted from paying the revenue. More- land has expressed that in case of failure of crop and absence of good production on newly cultivated lands, the peasants were not asked to pay the revenue. Besides, the peasants were asked to pay revenue on the cultivated land alone. The land which was not cultivated by the peasants was free from the revenue. The privileges of the previous Hindu revenue officers were restored.

However, the officers were instructed to observe that the Hindus did not enrich themselves very much. The practice of measurement and survey of land which was adopted during the reign of Ala-ud-din was abandoned. Instead, the old system of sharing of the produce, i.e., Batai and Nasq was revived. The revenue collectors were assigned lands which were free of tax. They were not paid any commission or salary.

The government officers were asked not to be cruel with peasants but to look after their welfare. If any officer collected excess revenue, he was punished. However, minor excesses of the officers were overlooked. But Ghiyas-ud-din insisted that his officers should be honest. He also improved means of irrigation and planted many gardens. These measures of Ghiyas-ud- din succeeded. The area under cultivation increased and the condition of farmers improved. He could also satisfy his officials and tax-collectors.

Ghiyas-ud-din improved the means of communication. Roads were repaired and improved. Bridges and canals were also constructed. He improved the postal system. Runners or horsemen were posted at a distance of two-thirds of a mile so that the post moved fast. He also improved the judicial system. The practice of rigorous punishment and that of torture for extracting truth was generally prohibited.

It continued only in cases of thieves, revenue defaulters or those who embezzled money of the state. Barani wrote that ‘because of the justice of Tughluq Shah even a wolf could not dare to look towards a sheep.’ Besides, Ghiyas-ud-din attempted to check gambling, drinking of liquor and other immoral abuses as well.

Ghiyas-ud-din was a capable military commander and, according to Barani, he loved his soldiers as a father loved his sons. He looked after their welfare and paid them well. But he was a strict disciplinarian as well. He strictly enforced the practice of keeping Huliya of the soldiers and that of Dagh viz., branding of the horses. Within two years after his accession, Ghiyas-ud-din succeeded in enhancing the strength of his army.

Towards the Hindus, Ghiyas-ud-din pursued nearly the same policy as was practised by Ala-ud-din. His policy was that neither the Hindus should be allowed to amass wealth so that they might rise in revolt nor they be reduced to poverty so much so that they might leave cultivation of their fields.

Thus, the basis of the policy which he adopted towards the Hindus was political. Dr Ishwari Prasad writes- “If he pursued oppression against the Hindus, it was not because of religious bigotry but the result of political necessity.”

Silver Tanka of Ghiyasal-Din Tughlaq Dated AH 724

The Suppression of the Revolts and the Expansion of the Empire :

Ghiyas-ud-din proved himself more aggressive imperialist than even Ala-ud- din. Ala-ud-din did not annex the territories of the kingdoms of the South. He was satisfied by bringing them under his suzerainty. Devagiri was annexed to his empire only when Shankar Deva completely refused to accept his overlordship. On the contrary, Ghiyas-ud-din frankly pursued the policy of annexation. He annexed the territories of all those rulers who were defeated by him.

Telingana claimed his first attention. Prataprudra Deva had reasserted independence and had not paid the yearly tribute. Ghiyas-ud-din sent his son, Jauna Khan alias Ulugh Khan, to subdue him in 1321 A.D. Jauna Khan moved swiftly, reached Warangal without any opposition and besieged the fort.

After six months Prataprudra Deva submitted and agreed to pay the annual tribute. But as Jauna Khan asked him to submit without any prior condition, no settlement could be made. Then the Hindus cut down the lines of communication of the besiegers so that news from Delhi ceased to come.

The same time a rumour was spread that Ghiyas-ud-din had died. This created panic among the army of Delhi and many officers along with their soldiers left Jauna Khan. Jauna Khan himself fled away to Devagiri. Contemporary historians differ regarding this incident.

Ibn Batuta described that Jauna Khan himself intended to rebel against his father and therefore, asked his companion Ubaid to spread this false rumour in the hope that the officers and the soldiers would come to his side. But the result was the opposite one.

Many officers left Jauna Khan which, ultimately, resulted in the failure of the first expedition of Warangal. But Isami and Barani have disagreed with Ibn Batuta. They expressed that Jauna Khan had no hand in spreading that false rumour.

Ubaid alone was responsible for it. Among modern historians Sir Woolseley Haig and many others have accepted the version of Ibn Batuta, while Dr Ishwari Prasad, Dr Mahdi Husain and Dr B.P. Saxena have accepted the account of Isami and Barani.

Jauna Khan reached Delhi and begged mercy from the Sultan. Ghiyas-ud- din pardoned him and killed all those nobles who had revolted against him. Then he sent another army again under Jauna Khan to attack Warangal. Jauna Khan attacked Warangal in 1323 A.D. On the way, he conquered Bidar and certain other forts so that he could keep safe his line of communication with Delhi. The fort of Warangal was captured after a siege of five months.

Prataprudra Deva was sent to Delhi as a prisoner where, according to Dr B.P. Saxena, he died in prison or committed suicide, but according to Dr R.C. Majumdar he was left free and he finished his life as a feudatory to the Sultan or as a petty independent chief somewhere. Warangal was named Sultanpur and the kingdom of Telingana was annexed to the territories of the Delhi Sultanate.

Jauna Khan, probably, also attacked the far-south state of Malabar and conquered and annexed Madura in 1323 A.D. But contemporary Muslim historians did not mention it in their accounts. However, Jauna Khan certainly attacked Orissa (Jajnagar) and after plundering it or after having met reverse, returned to Delhi.

Hardly the Sultan had become free from the campaigns of the South when he had to face an attack of the Mongols from the north-west in 1324 A.D. The Mongols, however, were defeated. Probably, at this very time, a revolt occurred in Gujarat but it was also suppressed.

Ghiyas-ud-din got an opportunity to interfere in the affairs of Bengal which had been independent since the death of Sultan Balban. The three brothers, Ghiyas-ud-din, Shihab-ud-din and Nasir-ud-din had quarrelled among themselves for the throne of Bengal. Ghiyas-ud-din had defeated Shihab-ud-din and occupied Lakhanauti, the capital of Bengal in 1319 A.D.

The third brother, Nasir-ud-din sought the help of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq to capture the throne. The Sultan welcomed this opportunity and proceeded towards Bengal in person. He was joined by Nasir-ud-din at Tirput.

Then the Sultan sent Zafar Khan to attack Lakhanauti. Ghiyas-ud-din was defeated and Nasir-ud-din was placed on the throne as a vassal-ruler of Delhi. However, Nasir-ud-din was handed over only North Bengal. East and South Bengal were annexed to the Sultanate of Delhi.

According to Isami, Ghiyas-ud-din, on his way back, attacked Tirhut (Mithila). Raja Har Singh Deva fled to Nepal and his kingdom was annexed to Delhi. But the Sultan had proceeded towards Delhi before the completion of the conquest.

Death of Ghiyas-Ud-Din :

Historians have differed regarding the death of Ghiyas-ud-din. Dr Mahdi Husain and Dr B.P. Saxena have expressed that he died of an accident while Dr Ishwari Prasad and Sir Woolseley Haig regarded it as a result of conspiracy of prince Jauna Khan against the Sultan.

Dr A.L. Srivastava and Dr R.C. Mazumdar also agree with their view. Among contemporary historians Ibn Batuta and Isami blamed the prince for the death of Sultan while the account of Barani is short and inconclusive. He simply wrote that ‘the Sultan had an accident because of the sudden fall of lightning.’

Mausoleum of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, Dehli

Scholars who find no fault of Jauna Khan in the death of his father have argued that :

(1) Both Ibn Batuta and Isami expressed that elephants were paraded not on the order of the prince, Jauna Khan but of the Sultan.

(2) Both Ibn Batuta and Isami based their opinion on what they heard from others.

(3) Jauna Khan had cordial relations with his mother when he became the Sultan which could not be possible if the prince would have participated in the death of his father.

(4) Nobody opposed Jauna Khan when he ascended the throne, and

(5) Jauna Khan was lovable to every member of his family and it was not expected of him that he would get his father murdered.

On the other hand, scholars, who doubt Jauna Khan of a conspiracy to murder his father have argued that :

(1) Ibn Batuta was a contemporary of Ghiyas-ud-din and had no reason to be against him. Therefore, we should accept his version reliable.

(2) Barani wrote nothing clearly because he desired protection of the court particularly from Firuz Tughluq who was in good books of Muhammad Tughluq.

(3) Nizamuddin Ahmad in Tabakata-i-Akbari, Badayuni in Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikha and Abul Fazl in Ain-i-Akbari described that the version of Barani of the fall of lightning which resulted in the death of Ghiyas-ud-din was pure fabrication.

(4) According to Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi, the accident occurred during the month of February-March but that was the season when there was no possibility of lightning.

(5) Jauna Khan was ambitious and therefore, his intentions could be doubtful, and

(6) when Jauna Khan became the Sultan, instead of punishing Ahmad Aiyaz who got constructed that temporary building, he promoted him to the rank of vazir.

According to Ibn Batuta, while the Sultan was in Bengal, he received disquieting news of the activities of prince Jauna in Delhi. He was informed that the prince was increasing the number of his followers, had become the disciple of Shaikh Nizam-ud-din Auliya with whom the Sultan was displeased and, probably, aspired for the throne.

The Sultan, therefore, threatened that he would punish both the prince and the Shaikh after his return to Delhi. The Shaikh is said to have remarked- ‘Hanuz Delhi dur ast’ (Delhi is still far off). Prince Jauna Khan welcomed the Sultan in Afghanpur, a village six miles to the south-east of Delhi.

There the prince had constructed a wooden pavilion which was so designed that it could fall immediately when touched at a certain part by the elephants. After the meal was over, the prince requested his father to display those elephants that he had brought from Bengal. The elephants were then paraded and when they came in contact with the weak part of the pavilion, the entire building collapsed.

The Sultan and his younger son, Mahmud Khan, were crushed under the building. Jauna Khan is said to have delayed in removing the debris and when these were removed the Sultan was found bent over the body of prince Mahmud Khan as if to protect him. Ibn Batuta was told of this incident by Shaikh Rukn-ud-din who was present in the pavilion at that time but was asked by prince Jauna Khan to leave for his prayers before elephants were brought for parade.

Thus, Ibn Batuta charged prince Jauna Khan for the murder of the Sultan. Whether the charge is correct is disputable but most of the historians agree that even if there was any conspiracy to murder the Sultan, Shaikh Nizam-ud-din Auliya had probably nothing to do with it.

Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325–1351) :

Muḥammad ibn Tughluq, (born c. 1290, Delhi, India—died March 20, 1351, Sonda, Sindh [now in Pakistan]), second sultan of the Tughluq dynasty (reigned 1325–51), who briefly extended the rule of the Delhi sultanate of northern Indiaover most of the subcontinent. As a result of misguided administrative actions and unexampled severity toward his opponents, he eventually lost his authority in the south; at the end of his reign, the sultanate had begun to decline in power.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq Shah, generally known as Muhammad Tughlaq, who ascended the throne on the death of his father has been a puzzle to the historians. He received a good liberal education, and was highly gifted and accomplished. He was well versed in logic, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and physical sciences also had the knowledge of medicine and dialectics. He was generous and possessed great purity of character but his rule brought misery to the people and materially weakened the government.

His reign coincided with a long period of draught and a protracted famine which in its intensity and extent was one of the worst the subcontinent has known. The rains are said to have failed for seven successive years (1335-1342) and there was wide spread famine. The king tried to deal with the situation by opening poor houses and distributing grain freely but the problem was beyond his resources and the people suffered heavily. This created many difficulties for the king but his misfortunes were not all due to natural and unavoidable causes. While he was a remarkable man he focused more on fantastic ideas, always thinking out of new measures but lacked two essential qualities to be a successful Sultan Practical judgment and common sense, moreover, an impatient man. He tried to take bold steps to improve the condition of his people and administrative system but it resulted in great follies and failure.

Muhammad Tughlaq tried to improve revenue administration. He ordered for the complete compilation of land assessment records. The work completed with intense supervision and the system began to work smoothly. An unrest rose among peasants of fertile Doab region when they were ordered to pay tax 50 % higher than that of Alaudin Khilgi’s time. The time was incorrect as the peasants were faced with a terrible famine. This whole process caused damage to Sultan’s prestige.

Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq tried to introduce some new monetary techniques. The prolonged famine and the expensive wars had severely strained the exchequer. To deal with the situation, the king issued brass and copper tokens in place of silver coins. It was designed to be an effective token currency however the measure was not welcome to the people particularly the commercial class. The failure was due to inefficiency of the government to prevent the issue of forgery. It reached such a level that people were manufacturing coins in their own homes. As Barani says, “every Hindu’s house became a mint”. The king had the sense to acknowledge his failure and the token currency was withdrawn from circulation after three or four years. Its introduction and failure however, neither enhanced public confidence in the Sultan nor did it restore economic prosperity to the country.

In 1327, he decided to change the seat of government to more centralized position to control the rebellions in the South. He selected the city of Divagiri for this purpose and renamed it as Daulatabad. He made it a fabulous city and provided a highway connecting Delhi to Daulatabad along with a regular post. Than he called upon the Muslim inhabitants of Delhi to migrate to the new capital, but they were reluctant to get settled in an unfamiliar land. The king adopted sturn measures to enforce his decree and ordered a complete evacuation. But his orders brought great sufferings to the people. Many perished on the long route of 700 miles to Daulatabad.

The king’s decision was much of a strategic importance. Consolidation of Muslim rule in the South was perhaps his main consideration, and there is no doubt that the migration of a large Muslim population drawn from all sections of society established Muslim rule in that part of the subcontinent. After some time the Sultan allowed those who so desired to return to Delhi, but many of the people who had gone to the South stayed on and were a source of strength to the Muslim rulers of the south. Some other measures of the king were equally ill-conceived and ill-fated. His plan to interfere in the affairs of Transoxiana and Persia, with a view perhaps to annexing some areas and the project conquest of Tibet in 1337-38 ended in fiasco and considerable loss of life and money.

Muhammad Tughlaq’s policy towards Sufi saints was as much different as his other policies. He thought the position and esteemed that Sufi saints held was a danger to the throne so he took various steps to break their power. He dispersed them or, otherwise persecuted them. He sharply discouraged enthusiasm for the contemporary leading Sufis. The result of this systematic policy was that the influence of the Sufis at Delhi sharply declined. Muhammad Tughlaq’s policy towards the Sufis at the capital was primarily dictated by political consideration, but according to Barani, it was also due to his association with skeptics and philosophers.

There were wide spread rebellions and the vast empire started breaking up. In 1335 Ma’bar became independent, followed by Bengal three years later. In 1346 Vijayanagar became the nucleus of a powerful Hindu state. In the same year Gujrat and Kathiawar revolted, but the Sultan was able to quell the rebellions in these two areas. Next it was the turn of Sind, and, in1351, the king was marching towards Thatta to put down the revolt there when he fell ill and died. As Bada’uni says: “The king was freed from his people and they from their king.”


" Muhammad bin Tughlaq was well known for his wisdom and character. People had a lot of expectations from him and he on the other hand, had the desire for more valuable contribution for his countrymen than his predecessors.

That is why right from the beginning of his rule; he decided to take some bold reformative measures for the improvement as well as safeguard of the country. "

Muhammad-bin-Tughluq next to Alluddin Khilzi was the greatest sultan of Delhi who is best remembered for his bold experiments and innovative thought in the field of administration as well as in agriculture.

Muhammad Tughlak orders his brass coins to pass for silver, A.D. 1330

He was one of the most remarkable rulers of his time. He was highly educated and was well versed in Arabic and Persian language. He was well read in the subjects of religion, philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, medicine and logic.

He was also a good calligraphist. Further from military point of view, he was an excellent commander and during the time of Sultan Mubarak Shaha Khiliji he was promoted to the rank of the master of the horse from an ordinary soldier. And again during the time of his father Sultan Giyasuddin Tughlaq he led the imperial forces to Telengana and Warrangal. He was highly ambitious and was a man of high moral character. He was very much faithful to his own religion and obeyed the religious rites and was regular at his daily prayers. He abstained himself from drinking in public. He was very kind and generous to the poor and pandits.

In spite of high qualification and knowledge, Sultan Muhamad-bin- Tughlaq suffered from certain qualities of hastiness and impatience that is why many of his experiments failed and he has been called an ill starred idealist. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq ascended the throne just three days after the sudden death of his father, Giyasuddin Tughlaq. When he was inspecting an elephant parade standing on a pavilion at Tughluqabad, the Pavilion collapsed and the Sultan along with his second son Muhammad Khan crushed under it and died. It is said that it was a conspiracy on the part of Muhammad-bin Tughlaq who was impatient for power.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq just after the death of his father, declared himself as the Sultan in Tughlaqabad and after staying 40 days there, he proceeded to Delhi where he was greeted by the people as well as the Nobles. His coronation ceremony was duly performed in the Red Palace of Balban.

Life :

Muḥammad was the son of the sultan Ghiyās al-Dīn Tughluq. Very little is known of his childhood, but he apparently received a good education. He possessed an encyclopaedic knowledge of the Qurʾān, Muslim jurisprudence, astronomy, logic, philosophy, medicine, and rhetoric. In 1321–22 his father sent him against the city of Warangal in the Deccan, in which campaign, after initial reverses, he subdued the rebellious Hindu rajas. From his accession to the throne in 1325 until his death in 1351, Muḥammad contended with 22 rebellions, pursuing his policies consistently and ruthlessly. Ziyāʾ al-Dīn Baranī, his close companion and counsellor for 17 years, often advised him to abdicate, but Muḥammad disdainfully rejected his advice.

As his reign began, Muḥammad attempted, without much success, to enlist the services of the ʿulamāʾ, the Muslim divines, and the Ṣūfīs, the asceticmystics. Failing to win the ʿulamāʾ over, he tried to curtail their powers, as some of his predecessors had, by placing them on an equal footing with other citizens. The Sultan wanted to use the Ṣūfīs’ prestigious position to stabilize his authority as ruler. Yet they had always refused any association with government and would not accept any grants or offices except under duress. Muḥammad tried every measure, conciliatory or coercive, to yoke them to his political wagon. Although he humiliated them, he could not break their opposition and succeeded only in dispersing them from the towns of northern India.

In the four pages of his so-called autobiography, Muḥammad’s only surviving literary work, he confesses that he had wavered from traditional orthodoxy to philosophic doubts and then found his way to a rational faith. To still his own doubts, as well as to counteract the opposition of the Muslim divines, he obtained from the caliph in Cairo a manshūr (patent of royalty) legitimizing his authority.


The transfer of the capital in 1327 to Deogir (now Daulatabad) was intended to consolidate the conquests in southern India by large-scale—in some cases forced—migration of the people of Delhi to Deogir. As an administrative measure it failed, but it had far-reaching cultural effects. The spread of the Urdu language in the Deccan may be traced to this extensive influx of Muslims. He introduced several reforms in the monetary system, and his coins, in design as well as in workmanship and purity of metal, excelled those of his predecessors. His introduction of token currency, coins of baser metal with the face value of silver coins, however, failed dismally.

A projected Khorāsān expedition (1327–28) that never materialized was intended to secure more defensible frontiers in the west. The Karajil (Garhwal-Kumaon) expedition (1329–30), an attempt to adjust the boundary dispute with the northern hill states then dominated by China, ended in disaster, but it was followed by an exchange of emissaries between China and Delhi. The conquest of Nagarkot in the foothills of the Himalayas in northwestern India was based on Muḥammad’s policy of establishing secure frontiers.

Between 1328 and 1329 the Sultan increased the land tax in the Doab—the land between the Ganges (Ganga) and Yamuna rivers—but the taxpayers resisted it, especially because a severe drought coincided. Muḥammad was the first ruler to introduce rotation of crops, establish state farms, and tend cultivation and improve artificial irrigation by establishing a department of agriculture. When famine broke out in northern India (1338–40), he moved his residence to Swargdawari to supervise famine relief measures himself.

Muḥammad’s last expedition, against the rebel Ṭaghī, ended with his death at Sonda in Sindh in 1351. He died with a smile on his face and verses of his own composition on his lips. In the words of a contemporary, “the Sultan was rid of the people and the people of the Sultan.”

Domestic measures :

Muhammad bin Tughlaq was well known for his wisdom and character. People had a lot of expectations from him and he on the other hand, had the desire for more valuable contribution for his countrymen than his predecessors. That is why right from the beginning of his rule; he decided to take some bold reformative measures for the improvement as well as safeguard of the country.

Revenue Reforms :

At first Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq wanted to make an assessment of the total income and expenditure of the country. He therefore issued an ordinance for the compilation of a register showing the incomes and expenditures of the provinces. The governors of the provinces were directed to submit the documents showing their incomes and expenditures and other necessary materials for the compilation work.

He opened a separate office where a large number of clerks and officers were appointed to do the compilation work. He did it in-order-to introduce a uniform standard of land revenue as well as to assess every village of his kingdom. It was definitely a praise-worthy step of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.

Establishment of Agriculture Department :

In order to bring an improvement in agriculture, Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq decided to undertake a number of measures and he, therefore established a department of agriculture called Diwan-i-kohi. The department’s main work was to find out uncultivated lands and make all sorts of arrangements for the cultivation of horse lands. At first a large area of land say sixty square miles in area was taken up in the project.

A large number of peasants were engaged in the work of cultivation. They were supplied with all sorts of agricultural instruments and seeds. They were asked to grow different crops in rotation. A large number of officers and guards were appointed to look after the project. The government spent over it more than seventy lakhs. In spite of this, the scheme failed miserably. The target amount of production could not be achieved. The expenditure in it outstripped the income from it. It was due to several reasons.

Firstly, the land chosen for cultivation was not fertile. Secondly, the officers lacked experience which accounted for bad planning or faulty implementation. There were also some corrupt officials who misappropriated a huge amount of production and money.

Lastly, it was a novel experiment, therefore, required more time and attention on the part of the Sultan which he could not give. He could have tried more to improve it. Though the scheme failed disastrously during his reign, yet it had a long term impact. But he was misunderstood by the people.

Transfer of the Capital :

Transfer of the capital from Delhi to Devagari (Daultabad) has the most controversial step of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Several factors prompted him to take this decision.

Firstly Devagiri had been a base for the expansion of Turkish rule in India. It was not always possible to operate army from Delhi for the occupation of Southern states. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq himself had spent a number of years as prince to occupy and guard the southern states during the time of his father.

Secondly as Devagiri was situated at a central place so the administration of the north and the south could be possible. He also did it in order to consolidate the newly conquered states of south. Further the people of the south were under the feeling of an alien rule.

Thirdly Delhi was nearer to the North-Western frontier which was exposed to Mongol invasions. But Devagiri would be a safe place and almost free from Mongol raids.

Lastly, it was in the mind of the Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq that he would be able to utilize the vast wealth and resources of the south, if his capital would be there at Devagiri. But lb Batuta gives a complete different reason for this transfer of capital.

According to him, Sultan Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq was disgusted with the life of Delhi because he was getting almost daily many anonymous letters from the people of the city abusing and criticizing him and therefore, he wanted to leave it for good. Whatever may be the fact Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq ordered for the transfer of capital in 1327 A.D.

He ordered his courtiers, officers, leading men including Sufi saints as well as all people of Delhi to shift to Devgiri. Though the inhabitants of Delhi were unwilling to leave their dear land of birth, they had to obey the Sultan’s order. Nobody was allowed to stay at Delhi. According to Ibn Batuta “A search was made and a blind man and a cripple man were found. The cripple man has put to death while the blind man was tied with the tail of horse and was dragged to Daulatabad where only his one leg reached.”

Of course this version of Iban Batuta has been debatable. Batuta says, the citizens of Delhi used to write letters containing abuses and scandals to the Sultan. Therefore, the Sultan decided to lay Delhi waste in order to punish them. Sir Woolreley Haig has accepted the version of Ibn Batuta, Isami also says that the Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq resolved to break-up the power of the citizens of Delhi and therefore, decided to transfer the capital. Thus, he also supported the version of Iban Batuta. But professor Habibullah and others have given almost the different views.

However the people were asked to shift. The distance from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devagiri) was nearly 1500 km. The Sultan had set up rest houses on the way to help the travellers. Since this event took place during the summer season and the journey was rigorous one, many people died on the way. Many of those who reached Daulatabad felt home sick because the land and climate were not suitable to their health and they were also reminded of their dear birth place where they had lived generations together.

Hence, there was a good deal of discontent. After a couple of years, Muhammad Tughlaq decided to abandon Daulatabad because he realized the fact that just as he could not control the South from Delhi in the same way he could not control North from Daulatabad. He changed his mind and again in 1335 A.D. he ordered the retransfer of the Capital to Delhi and asked everybody to go back to Delhi. So his transfer of capital with the entire population of Delhi was a blunder. He could have shifted only the official seats and officers and courtiers but not the entire people of Delhi.

Though the attempt to make Devagiri a capital failed, it had a number long-range benefit. It helped in bringing north and south closer together by improving communications. Many people, including religious divines who had gone to Daulatabad, settled down there. They became the means of spreading in the Deccan the cultural, religious and social ideas which the turks had brought with them to north India.

This resulted in a new process of cultural interaction between north and South India. However Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq has been criticized for this transfer of capital. Neither his selection of the place Devagiri as a site of capital nor his act of shifting the entire population of Delhi was welcomed by any historian. According to Standly Lane-poole, “Daulatabad was a monument of misdirected energy.”

Introduction of Token Currency :

Introduction of token currency was another bold experiment of the Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Since currency or money is a medium of exchange, it is greatly required that to with a huge quantity to serve the purpose of exchange in modern time. Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq’s predecessors depended on gold and silver coins as medium of exchange. But during the time Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq a huge quantity of coins was required for various transactions and there was a dearth of gold and silver coins in the country.

Further he had squeezed the treasury by spending a lot of money in his various experiments including the transfer of the capital. And again he had the ambition to conquer distant countries which would require a good deal of money. Considering all those factors he decided to introduce a bronze coin which was to have the same value as the silver tanka. He was also encouraged by Qublai Khan, the ruler of China and Ghazan Khan, the ruler of Persia who had successfully experimented with a token currency. Muhammad- bin-Tughlaq introduced bronze coins in place of silver and gold but there remained certain defects which made him a big failure in this experiment.

Within a very short time specimens of this coin were found in different parts of the country. A huge amount of forged coins entered into market and government treasury as those were minted secretly by private parties. The government took no steps to prevent this. As a result each house turned to be a mint.

Further, people made payments to the government with new bronze coins and hoarded gold and silver. The government treasury was filled with bronze or copper coins. The new coins also began to be greatly devalued in the markets. Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq could not stop the forging of new coins. Had he been able to do so, he could have been successful.

Finally he decided to withdraw the token currency. He promised to exchange silver coins for bronze coins. In this way a huge amount of new coins were exchanged for silver. But the forged coins which were detected were not exchanged.

These coins Barani says, were heaped up outside the fort and remained lying there for many years.- These above experiments not only brought wastage of money but also affected the prestige of the Sultan.

Token currency coin

Khurasan Expedition :

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq’s experiments were not confined to internal matters only; it was also down with external affairs. His Khurasan project was the first of them. In-order-to fulfill his ambition of a great conqueror; he planned to conquer the kingdom of Khurasan which was then ruled by Iraq. He recruited one lakh soldiers for this purpose and paid them one year’s salary in advance.

He spent nearly three lakhs of rupees for this mission. But this project was dropped because he did not get the help of the Persian emperor who had assured him to help in this mission. Ultimately the Sultan incurred a huge financial loss and his reputation as a conqueror hampered much.

Karajal Expedition :

Karajal expedition was another mis-judged step of Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq. Karajal was a Hindu kingdom located between India and China. In 1337 Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq sent a huge army to invade Karajal. After some initial success, the Delhi army perished in the mountainous region of Himalayas due to severe rain fall.

The army suffered terribly and we are told by Barani that out 10, 000 army only 10 horse-men could return to Delhi to tell the story of the disaster. It was a great loss to the Sultan both in men and money. Though the Hindu raja of Karajal accepted the Suzerinty of Delhi, but considering to the amount of loss, it can be described that the Karajal expedition was an unsuccessful adventure of Sultan.

Further against the Mongols, the Sultan Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq felt weak as he had neglected the defence of the northwestern frontier. The Mongols under their leader Tarma-Shirin Khan had invaded India and plundered upto Multan and Lahore without any opposition.

When they advanced towards Delhi, the Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq not knowing what to do, bribed the invader with a huge quantity of gold and silver. This weakness of the Sultan made people feel most insecure. Failure in both the military expeditions as well as his inability to defend the Mongols made him unpopular.

The Estimate of Sultan Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq :

While making an estimate of Sultan Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq’s character and achievements, historians have strongly differed and have expressed diametrically opposite views. Historians like Elphinstone, Edward Thomass, Havell and V.A. Smith have agreed that the Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq was affected by some degree of insanity. But on the other hand historians like Gardiner Brown and Dr. Iswari Prasad have described Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq with high sounding words and do not believe that he was suffering from insanity.

Even contemporary historians like Barani and Ibn Batuta have expressed opposite views about the character and achievements of the Sultan. So in this context, it is very difficult to make an important and unprejudiced assessment of the Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Almost all the historians have agreed that Sultan Muhammad was one of the most learned and accomplished scholars of his time.

He had profound knowledge in logic, philosophy, mathematics astronomy and physical sciences. He was well versed in Arabic and Persian language and literature. He was a lover of music and fine arts. Barani says, the sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq was a veritable wonder of creation whose abilities would have taken by surprise even Aristotle and Asaf.

But he was proved to be a big failure as a ruler particularly with regards to his different experiments. His increase of tax in the fertile Doab region was not at all in-correct. As a ruler he had the every right to increase tax in-order-to meet the day to day expenditures of the country. But it came at a time when the Doab region was at famine.

People who were already paying almost fifty percent of the land revenue since the time of Ala-ud-din suddenly became unwilling to pay more than that. And the very situation was not favourable to make-up their minds to pay more. Neither the Sultan nor his officers did realize the matter. Secondly his creation of Department of Agriculture for the purpose of Large Scale cultivation of lands for surplus production was a welcomed step. But while implementing it he did a mistake by not choosing a fertile land for this purpose. Again the officers appointed in this work were corrupt and lacked experience. He did a great mistake by dropping this project just after one failure. It seems that though his idea was good, but he lacked executional ability.

Again in case of his transfer of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad, he displayed his lack of Wit. Instead of shifting the en masse population, he could have shifted only the official seats and officers. Even if he had the intention to punish the people of Delhi for their abusing and scandlous letters, he could do so by some other method, but not by physically shifting them to Devagiri, the new capital. Further his introduction of token currency was amazing one.

As there was shortage of gold and silver coins to serve as a medium of exchange due to the increase in the transactions, the sultan was very right to go for the introduction of a Copper Currency which had the same value as the Silver Coin. But he failed to keep an effective control over its minting. It was found a huge amount of foreged copper coins in the market as a result of private minting. He also did not make any elaborate effort to check it except banning it.

As regards to his foreign expeditions, he was seen as a great failure. He lost both men and money in both the expeditions of Khurassan and Karajal. He had exhibited lack of wisdom and commonsense in these expeditions. He was also mild before the Mongols.

It was due to the failure in different matters he has been called a mad Sultan. He has also been characterised as a mixture of opposites and a bundle of contradictions. It is sure that he had many good ideas, but he had not the capacity to execute them. He was surely one of the extraordinary kings.

Legacy :

Sultan Muḥammad was among the most controversial and enigmatic figures of the 14th century. A dauntless soldier, he was tolerant in religion and was normally humane and humble, but these traits were vitiated at times by cruelty sometimes approaching the inhuman. He lived in constant conflict between faith and action, faith in the correctness of his policies and action in the means by which he sought to implement them. A born revolutionary, he desired to create a more equitable social order by making Islam a religion of service rather than a means of exploitation. This end, he believed, could be achieved only by a strong centralized authority based on justice and patronage of the poor, the learned, and the pious and on the suppression of rebellions mainly of the privileged classes in a tradition-ridden society.

All contemporary historians based their assessment of Muḥammad on his administrative measures, which were neither vicious nor visionary. They failed because of the harshness of the Sultan in executing them, the challenge they posed to the privileged classes, the general lethargy and conservatism of his subjects, and the expansion of the empire with which Muḥammad’s administrative machinery could not cope.

Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388) :

Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq was a Turkic Muslim ruler of the Tughlaq Dynasty, who reigned over the Sultanate of Delhi from 1351 to 1388. His father's name was Rajab who had the title Sipahsalar. He succeeded his cousin Muhammad bin Tughlaq following the latter's death at Thatta in Sindh, where Muhammad bin Tughlaq had gone in pursuit of Taghi the ruler of Gujarat. For the first time in the history of Delhi Sultanate, a situation was confronted wherein nobody was ready to accept the reins of power. With much difficulty, the camp followers convinced Firuz to accept the responsibility. In fact, Khwaja Jahan, the Wazir of Muhammad bin Tughlaq had placed a small boy on throne claiming him to the son of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, who meekly surrendered afterwards. Due to widespread unrest, his realm was much smaller than Muhammad's. Tughlaq was forced by rebellions to concede virtual independence to Bengal and other provinces.

Remains of buildings at Firoz Shah Kotla, Delhi, 1795.

His Rule :

Firoz was majorly depended on an earlier commander, Malik Maqbul who accepted Islam after he was arrested. Sultan used to call him khan-i-jahan which meant real ruler. Malik helped him in his rule when he was on expeditions. Tughlaq decided not to repeat the mistakes done by his cousin Muhammad's. He chose not to reconquer territories that had split away, nor to keep further regions from taking their autonomy.

Firoz gave various imperative concessions to the scholars. He attempted to boycott practices which the standard scholars considered un-Islamic. In this manner, he denied the act of Muslim ladies going out to pray at the graves of holy people. He mistreated various Muslim groups which were viewed as unorthodox by the scholars.

Firoz provided the principal of inheritance to the armed force. Officers were permitted to rest and enjoy and send their children in army in their place. The officers were not paid in real money but rather by projects on land revenue income of towns. This novel strategy of instalment prompted numerous misuses.

Achievements of Firoz Shah :

Firoz Shah Tughlaq worked majorly for development of infrastructure in his kingdom. He built schools, hospitals, river canals, reservoirs, rest houses among other things. He also repaired the Qutub Minar which had been damaged by an earthquake.

• He established the Diwan-i-Khairat -- office for charity
• He established the Diwan-i-Bundagan -- department of slave
• He established Sarais (rest house) for the benefits of merchants and other travellers
• He adopted the Iqtadari framework
• He is known to establish four new towns, Firozabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur and Hissar
• He established hospitals known as Darul-Shifa, Bimaristan or Shifa Khana

He constructed canals from :

• Yamuna to the city of Hissar
• Sutlej to the Ghaggar
• Ghaggar to Firozabad
• Mandvi and Sirmour Hills to Hansi in Haryana

Taxes imposed under Firoz Shah Tughlaq :

• Kharaj: land tax which was equal to one-tenth of the produce of the land
• Zakat: two and a half per cent tax on property realized from the Muslims
• Kham: one-fifth of the booty captured (four-fifth was left for the soldiers)
• Jaziya: levied on the non-Muslim subjects, particularly the Hindus. Women and children were, however, exempted from the taxes

Bright side of Firoz Tughlaq’s reign :

1. Assessment of the revenue:

Firoz Tughlaq appointed a special officer namely Khawja Hisan-ud-Din to prepare an estimate of the public revenue of the kingdom. It took 6 years to complete this work. The Khawja toured the entire kingdom and prepared proper records. Thereafter he fixed the revenue of the ‘Khalsa’ land (Government land) in the kingdom at six crores and eighty-five lakhs of ‘Tankas’ (silver coins).

2. New system of taxation:

In accordance with the Islamic law, he imposed the following four taxes:

(i) ‘Kharaj’:

It was the land tax which was equal to one-tenth of the produce of the land.

(ii) ‘Zakat’:

It was two-and-half per cent tax on property realized from the Muslims and utilized for specific religious purposes only.

(iii) ‘Kham’:

It was one-fifth of the booty captured and the four-fifth was left for the soldiers.

(iv) ‘Jijya’:

It was levied on the Non-Muslim subjects, particularly the Hindus. Women and children were, however exempted from the taxes.

3. Levy of other taxes:

The irrigation tax, garden tax, octroi tax and the sales tax were the other important taxes.

4. Irrigation works:

With a view to encourage irrigation, the Sultan paid a lot of attention to irrigation works.

Following four canals were constructed:

(i) The first and the most important and the longest canal were one which carried the waters of the river Jamuna to the city of Hissar. It was 150 miles long.

(ii) The second canal was drawn from river Sutlej to Ghaghra. It was about 100 miles long.

(iii) The third canal was from Mandvi and Sirmur hills to Hansi.

(iv) The fourth canal ran from Ghaghra to the newly established town of Firozabad.

Irrigation tax was charged at the rate of one-tenth of the produce of the irrigated land.

5. Laying out gardens:

The Sultan laid out about 1200 gardens in and around Delhi. These gardens produced so much fruit that they brought to the treasury an annual income of one lakh and eighty thousand tankas’.

6. Welfare of the peasants:

The Sultan waived off the loans that were given to them by Muhammad Tughlaq at the time of drought. He issued strict instructions to the officers not to harass the peasants.

7. Benevolent works:

These included the following:

(i) ‘Diwan-i-Kherat’:

It performed two main functions. The marriage bureau gave grants to the poor parents for the marriage of their daughters. It also provided financial help to the destitute.

(ii) ‘Dar-ul-Shafa’:

Hospitals were set up in important towns where medicines were given free of charge. Poor people were also supplied food.

(iii) ‘Sarais’:

About 200 ‘ ‘sarais’ (rest houses) were built by the Sultan for the benefits of merchants and other travellers.

(iv) Grants to sufferers:

The Sultan gave liberal grants to all those persons or their heirs who had suffered bodily or executed during the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq.

8. Public works department:

The Sultan got constructed four canals, ten public baths, four mosques, thirty palaces, two hundred, Sarais’, one hundred tombs, 30 towns and one hundred bridges. Firoz Shah had a passion for public works. About his building activities, Sultan himself observed, “Among the gifts which God has bestowed upon me, His humble servant, had a desire to erect public buildings. So 1 built many mosques and monasteries that the learned and the devout and the holy, might worship God in these edifices and aid the kind builder with their prayers.”

Four important towns founded by him were of Firozabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur and Hissar Firoza. Two pillars of Ashoka were brought to Delhi—one from Meerut and the other from Topra, Arnbala district—and erected in Delhi. In this regard Dr. V.A. Smith has observed, “Asiatic kings as a rule show no interest in buildings erected by their predecessors, which usually are allowed to decay uncared for. Firoz Shah was particular in devoting much attention to the repair and rebuilding of the structures of former kings and ancient nobles.”

9. Promotion of education and literature:

Firoz Tughlaq was a great patron of historians, poets and scholars. He himself was a man of learning and wrote his biography entitled ‘Fatuhat-i-Firozshah’. He established thirty educational institutions including three colleges. Teachers were liberally paid and stipends were granted to the students.

Zia-ud-Din Barani wrote ‘Fatwah-i-Jahandari’ and Afif wrote his ‘Tarikh-i-Firuzshah’.
Maulana Jalal-ud-Din Rumi, the famous theologian also flourished in his court.

10. Judicial reforms:

Firoz Tughlaq was opposed to severe punishments. He ended punishments like cutting of the limbs, extracting the eyes, putting melted glass in the throat, burning alive etc. He established courts at all important places of his empire and appointed Qazis etc. to administer justice.

11. Reforms in the currency system:

The Sultan introduced several types of new coins and small coins and ensured that no false coins came into circulation.

Dark Side of Firoz Tughlaq‘s Reign :

1. Failure as a conqueror :

Firoz Tughlaq was not an able general. No significant conquests were made by him.

Main military events are given below:

(i) Bengal:

Firoz Tughlaq made two attempts to conquer Bengal but failed.

(ii) Orissa:

While returning from Bengal, he attacked Orissa. The ruler agreed to pay tribute to the Sultan.

(iii) Nagarkot (Kangra):

It took about six months to subjugate the Raja who acknowledged the Sultan’s suzerainty.

(iv) Sindh:

In the initial attacks by the Sultan himself, about three- fourth of his army was destroyed. Later the Sindh ruler accepted the suzerainty of the Sultan.

2. Army organization :

The Sultan introduced several reforms in the army which produced negative results.

(i) He did not maintain a standing army,

(ii) Military service was made hereditary,

(iii) The principle of merit was ignored,

(iv) The Sultan introduced the system of paying salary by grant of land.

This meant that a soldier had to go to his village for collecting his land revenue in lieu of salary.

3. Evils of Jagirdari system :

Firoz Tughlaq introduced the system of granting jagirs (lands) to his officials in place of cash payment. In due course, jagirdars became very powerful and created difficulties for the rulers

4. Nereauary nobles :

Firoz Tughlaq decreed that whenever a noble died, his son should be allowed to succeed to his position. This reduced the chances of competent persons being appointed at responsible posts.

5. Slave system :

It is said that Firoz Tughlaq had maintained about one lakh, eighty thousand slaves. It put great economic burden on the state. This slave system proved very harmful and became one of the contributory factors of the downfall of the Tughlaq empire.

An estimate of Firoz Tughlaq :

“The welfare of the people”, says Dr. Ishwari Prasad, “was the watchword of his administration. Therefore, Firoz is considered by Barani as an ideal Muslim King.”

In the words of Havell Firozj’s reign “is a welcome breath in the long chain of tyranny, cruelty and debauchery which make up the gloomy annals of the Turkish dynasties.”

Afif, a contemporary of Firoz writes, “Their (peasants) homes were replete with grain, everyone had plenty of gold and silver. “No women was without ornaments”

About the previous penal code and the changes brought about by Firoz, S.R. Sharma states, “it was left to his less appreciated successor (Firoz) to mitigate its ferocity.”

About the judicial system, V.A. Smith has said, “One reform the abolition of mutilation and torture, deserves unqualified commendation.”

About his love for buildings, Sir Woolseley Haigh has remarked, “He indulged in a passion for building which equalled if it did not surpass that of Roman emperor Augutus.”

Emergence of Bengal Sultanate :

The Delhi Sultanate lost its hold over Bengal in 1338 when separatist states were established by governors, including Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah in Sonargaon, Alauddin Ali Shah in Lakhnauti and Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah in Satgaon. In 1352, Ilyas Shah defeated the rulers of Sonargaon and Lakhnauti and united the Bengal region into an independent kingdom. He founded the Turkic Ilyas Shahi dynasty which ruled Bengal until 1490. During this time, much of the agricultural land was controlled by Hindu zamindars, which caused tensions with Muslim Taluqdars. The Ilyas Shahi rule was challenged by Raja Ganesha, a powerful Hindu landowner, who briefly managed to place his son, Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah, on the throne in the early 15th century, before the Ilyas Shahi dynasty was restored in 1432. The late 1480s saw four usurper sultans from the mercenary corps. Tensions between different Muslim communities often affected the kingdom.

After a period of instability, Alauddin Hussain Shah gained control of Bengal in 1494 when he was prime minister. As Sultan, Hussain Shah ruled till 1519. The dynasty he founded reigned till 1538. Muslims and Hindus jointly served in the royal administration during the Hussain Shahi dynasty. This era is often regarded as a golden age of the Bengal Sultanate, in which Bengali territory included areas of Arakan, Orissa, Tripura and Assam. The sultanate gave permission for establishing the Portuguese settlement in Chittagong. Sher Shah Suriconquered Bengal in the 16th century, during which he renovated the Grand Trunk Road. After conquering Bengal, Sher Shah Suri proceeded to Agra. His governor in Bengal rebelled and later reclaimed the sultanate. The Pashtun Karrani dynasty was the last royal family of the kingdom.

The absorption of Bengal into the Mughal Empire was a gradual process. It began with the defeat of Bengali forces under Sultan Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah by Babur at the Battle of Ghaghra. Humayun occupied the Bengali capital of Gaur during the invasion of Sher Shah Suri against both the Mughals and Bengal Sultans. Mughal rule formally began with the Battle of Raj Mahal when the last reigning Sultan of Bengal was defeated by the forces of Akbar. The Bengal Subah was created. The eastern deltaic Bhati region remained outside of Mughal control until being absorbed in the early 17th-century. The delta was controlled by a confederation of twelve aristocrats of the former sultanate, who became known as the Twelve Bhuiyans. Their leader was Isa Khan, a former nobleman of the sultanate. The Mughal government eventually suppressed the remnants of the sultanate in Bhati and brought all of Bengal under imperial rule.

Legacy :

His eldest son, Fath Khan, died in 1376. The Sultan then abdicated in August 1387 and made his other son, Prince Muhammad, king. A slave rebellion forced the Sultan to confer the royal title to his grandson, Tughluq Khan.

Tughlaq's death led to a war of succession coupled with nobles rebelling to set up independent states. His lenient attitude had strengthened the nobles, thus weakening the Sultan's position. His successor Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq II could not control the slaves or the nobles. The army had become weak and the empire had shrunk in size. Ten years after his death, Timur's invasion devastated Delhi. His tomb is located in Hauz Khas (New Delhi), close to the tank built by Alauddin Khalji. Attached to the tomb is a madrasa built by Firoz Shah in 1352-53.

• Sultan Ghiyath-ud-din Tughluq Shah (1388–1389)
• Sultan Abu Bakr Shah (1389–1390)
• Sultan Muhammad Shah (1390–1394)
• Sultan Ala-ud-din Sikandar Shah (1394)
• Sultan Nasir-ud-din Nusrat Shah Tughluq (1394–1398)

Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq (1394 – 1413) :

Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq (reign: 1394 – February 1413 CE) was the last sultan of the Tughlaq dynasty to rule the Islamic Delhi Sultanate. During his reign in 1398, Amir Timur the Chagtai ruler invaded India. He carried away with him a large booty from Delhi and the surrounding area. Soon after the invasion, the Tughlaq dynasty came to an end.

Timurid Invasion :

Timur (1336-1405 A.D.) was a great military commander and conqueror of Central Asia. He conquered one kingdom after another. In course of a fight, his one leg was wounded and he limped for the rest of his life. Thereafter he came to be known as Timur-the Lame. The Persians called him ‘Timur-i-Lang’.
Timur succeeded in establishing a vast empire which included Transoxiana, a part of Turkistan, Afghanistan, Persia, Syria, Qurdistan, Baghdad, Georgia and the major part of Asia Minor. He successfully looted southern Russia and several parts of India. Delhi was perhaps the worst sufferer.

Fulfilling the task of Changez Khan :

It is said by some historians that Timur wanted to realise the dream of Changez Khan which he had seen at the time of Iltutmish.

Unstable political condition of India :

Timur wanted to make the best use of the political chaos of India.

Timur’s attack on Delhi Sultanate:

In 1398, Timur invaded northern India, attacking the Delhi Sultanate ruled by Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq of the Tughlaq dynasty. He was opposed by Ahirs and faced some reversals from the Jats, but the Sultanate at Delhi did nothing to stop him. After crossing the Indus River on 30 September 1398, he sacked Tulamba and massacred its inhabitants. Then he advanced and captured Multan by October.

Timur crossed the Indus River at Attock (now in Pakistan) on 24 September 1398. His invasion did not go unopposed and he encountered resistance from the Governor of Meerut during the march to Delhi. Timur was still able to continue his approach to Delhi, arriving in 1398, to fight the armies of Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq, which had already been weakened by a succession struggle within the royal family.

Capture of Delhi (1398) :

The battle took place on 17 December 1398. Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq and the army of Mallu Iqbal had war elephants armored with chain mail and poison on their tusks. As his Tatar forces were afraid of the elephants, Timur ordered his men to dig a trench in front of their positions. Timur then loaded his camels with as much wood and hay as they could carry. When the war elephants charged, Timur set the hay on fire and prodded the camels with iron sticks, causing them to charge at the elephants howling in pain: Timur had understood that elephants were easily panicked. Faced with the strange spectacle of camels flying straight at them with flames leaping from their backs, the elephants turned around and stampeded back toward their own lines. Timur capitalized on the subsequent disruption in the forces of Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq, securing an easy victory. Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq fled with remnants of his forces. Delhi was sacked and left in ruins. Before the battle for Delhi, Timur executed 100,000 captives.

The capture of the Delhi Sultanate was one of Timur's greatest victories, arguably surpassing the likes of Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan because of the harsh conditions of the journey and the achievement of taking down one of the richest cities at the time. After Delhi fell to Timur's army, uprisings by its citizens against the Turkic-Mongols began to occur, causing a retaliatory bloody massacre within the city walls. After three days of citizens uprising within Delhi, it was said that the city reeked of the decomposing bodies of its citizens with their heads being erected like structures and the bodies left as food for the birds by Timur's soldiers. Timur's invasion and destruction of Delhi continued the chaos that was still consuming India, and the city would not be able to recover from the great loss it suffered for almost a century.

Delhi after sack of Timur Lang, 1398

Effects of Timur’s Invasion :

Economic effects :

(a) Carrying away enormous wealth of India to Central Asia.

(b) Destruction of standing crops and ravaging grain stores.

(c) Breaking out of diseases and famine.

3. Political effects :

(a) Death blow to the already tottering power of the Tughlaq dynasty.

(b) Disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate.

(c) Exposure of India’s military weakness and paving way for Babur’s invasion.

Successor to Tughluq Dynasty :

After the return of Amir Timur, Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq (reign: 1394 – February 1413 CE), the last sultan of the Tughlaq dynasty was under the effect of Amir Mallu Iqbal (ruler of the land between river Ganga and Jamuna river). In 1408 Amir Mallu Iqbal attacked the Punjab but was defeated and killed by its ruler Sayyid Khizr Khan. After Mallu's death, Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah returned to Delhi and established his Kingdom with help of Dauwlat Khan Lodi. Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah died in February 1413. Dauwlat Khan Lodi was raised as Sultan of Delhi by the Wazeers and Amirs of the last Tughlaq Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah. He remained as autonomous King for almost a year. On 28th May 1414, Sayyid Khizr Khan surrounded the city, defeated the Daulat Khan's army and established the Sayyid dynasty. In 1414, the power vacuum created by Timur's invasion was filled by the first Sayyid Sultan.
The succeeding sultan of the Delhi Sultanate was Khizr Khan, the first of the Sayyid dynasty.

 

[dexter]

Sayyid dynasty (1414–1451) :

After the Tughlaq dynasty disintegrated, the Sayyid dynasty rose to power. They were essentially the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate of India and reigned from 1414 to 1451. The history of the Sayyid dynasty is not clearly known but they claimed to be the descendants of Prophet Mohammed. The Sayyid Empire was formed amidst chaos when there was no figure of authority to control Delhi. The Sayyid dynasty had four basic rulers.
The Sayyid Dynasty was founded by Khizr Khan, who was the governor of Multan and Timur's deputy in India. This dynasty ruled for 37 years from 1414 to 1451 AD by four rulers- Khizr Khan, Mubarak, Muhammad Shah, Alam Shah. Here, we are giving a complete detailed summary on the Sayyid Dynasty of Delhi Sultanate.

The first Sayyid ruler of Delhi was Khizr Khan (reigned 1414–21), who had been governor of the Punjab. He and his three successors occupied themselves in raids to collect revenue, barely maintaining themselves against the Sharqī sultans to the east and the Khokars to the northwest. Khizr’s successor, Mubārak Shah, had some success, but, after the latter’s assassination in 1434, his two successors, Muḥammad Shah and ʿĀlam Shah, proved incapable. ʿĀlam Shah abandoned Delhi for Badaun in 1448, and three years later Bahlūl Lodī, already ruler of the Punjab, seized Delhi and inaugurated the Lodī, the last dynasty of the Delhi sultanate.

Following the 1398 Sack of Delhi, Amir Timur appointed the Sayyids as the governors of Delhi. Their dynasty was established by Sayyid Khizr Khan, deputised by Timur to be the governor of Multan (Punjab). Khizr Khan captured Delhi on 28 May 1414 thereby establishing the Sayyid dynasty. Khizr Khan did not take up the title of Sultan and nominally, continued to be a Rayat-i-Ala (vassal) of the Timurids - initially that of Timur, and later his grandson Shah Rukh.

Khizr Khan was succeeded by his son Sayyid Mubarak Shah after his death on 20 May 1421. Mubarak Shah referred to himself as Muizz-ud-Din Mubarak Shah on his coins. A detailed account of his reign is available in the Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi written by Yahya-bin-Ahmad Sirhindi. After the death of Mubarak Shah, his nephew, Muhammad Shah ascended the throne and styled himself as Sultan Muhammad Shah. Just before his death, he called his son Sayyid Ala-ud-Din Shah from Badaun, and nominated him as successor.

The last ruler of the Sayyids, Ala-ud-Din, voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in favour of Bahlul Khan Lodi on 19 April 1451, and left for Badaun, where he died in 1478.

Khizr Khan (1414–1421) :

When Timur ‘the Scourge of God’ departed India, the Delhi Sultanate was in an appalling state of disintegration. The once large empire had fragmented into small independent states, some of which were larger than the core Delhi Sultanate itself. Even so, the Sultanate endured for another 114 years, mostly in perilous condition, till Babur the Mughal wiped it away and established the Mughal Empire in India. Following the death of Sultan Mahmud, there followed two years of chaotic interregnum before two successor dynasties came to power—first, the Sayyids ruling for 37 years under four successive sultans; followed by the Lodis ruling for 75 years under three sultans.

Khizr Khan Sayyid founded the dynasty named after the appellation with his name that signified his descend from the Prophet Muhammad—the Sayyid Dynasty. The veracity of this claim of descent from the Prophet is not readily ascertainable and is therefore uncertain. Khizr Khan’s ancestors had indeed come from Arabia, migrating to India during the early part of the Tughluq rule. They had settled in Multan and Malik Suleiman, Khizr Khan’s father, had been appointed the governor of Multan by later Tughluq rulers. Khizr Khan inherited the position on his father’s death, but managed to lose it during the confusion that followed Firuz Shah’s death in Delhi. During that chaotic time, Sarang Khan, the brother of Mallu Iqbal Khan the strongman of Delhi, captured Khizr Khan and took over the governorship of Multan. Khizr Khan however, managed to escape.

After escaping captivity, Khizr joined Timur during his return trip from the sack of Delhi. On Timur’s final departure, Khizr regained his previous position when he was once again appointed governor of Multan. He stayed in the position and on the death of Mahmud, the last Tughluq ruler, he overthrew Daulta Khan who had come to the throne of Delhi and ascended the throne as Sultan Khizr Khan Sayyid.

It was not possible for Khizr Khan to take stern measures as Balban did to reclaim the former provinces of the Delhi Empire. That was beyond his acumen and resources. But there were refractory chiefs near Delhi and it was only natural that he should attempt to subdue them. In the year of his succession his wazir, Taj-ul-Mulk led a series of expeditions against the Rajput princes of Katehar and Etawah. Other expeditions sent to Kampil. Patiali, Jalesar, Gwalior, Biyana and Mewat. These expeditions met with temporary success but failed to produce any positive result. The people in the capital recovered as he helped the poor resettle.

Khizar Khan’s rule united the Punjab with Delhi. In his seven year rule Khizar Khan attacked the Raja of Etawah four times. Those of Katehar and Gwaliar thrice and several fief holders once or twice. The Khokars from the north Punjab frequently raided the territory of Delhi, he suppressed them. He also defeated the Rajput Etawah and compelled him submit again to the Delhi government. Apart from that, in 1421, the rebels of Mewat were crushed and the ruler of Gwaliar was forced to pay the tribute. He also crushed the rebellions of Khar, Kambila and Sakit in 1414 A.D. Khizr Khan fell ill in one of his expeditions and on his return to Delhi died on 20 May 1421. After his death his son Mubarak Khan ascended the throne of Delhi.

Ancestry and early life :

A contemporary writer Yahya Sirhindi mentions in his Takhrikh-i-Mubarak Shahi that Khizr Khan was a descendant of Muhammad, but his conclusion was based only on a testimony of the saint Syed Jalal-ud-Din Bukhari of Uchh Sharif. Malik Mardan Daulat, the Governor of Multan, adopted Khizr Khan's father, Malik Sulaiman, as his son. Sulaiman succeeded Malik Shaikh, another son of Malik Mardan, to the governorship. After his death, Firuz Shah Tughlaq appointed Khizr Khan as governor. But in 1395, he was expelled from Multan by Sarang Khan, brother of Mallu Iqbal Khan. He fled to Mewat and later joined Timur. It is believed that before his departure, Timur appointed Khizr Khan his viceroy at Delhi although he could only establish his control over Multan, Dipalpur and parts of Sindh. Soon he started his campaign and defeated Mallu Iqbal Khan. After defeating Daulat Khan Lodi, he entered Delhi victoriously on 6 June 1414.

Sultanate in Dire Straits :

Even though a new Sultan had ascended the throne, the process of the Sultanate’s disintegration continued unabated. In Delhi, the nobles continued their mad scramble for power, changing allegiances rapidly and regularly. Sordid ambitions were nakedly visible and led to unprincipled opportunism and the focused pursuit of pure self-interest. Since the days of the mighty Balban, the Doab had been the most restive region under the Sultanate. During the confusion of the last days of the Tughluq dynasty, Rajput chieftains of the Rathor clan had become independent rulers in Etawah, Katehar, Kanauj and Badayun. They stirred rebellions on a regular basis, necessitating the repeated mounting of punitive expeditions by the Delhi Sultans. These expeditions were required to bring a semblance of order to the region but were never entirely successful.

By the end of the 14th century, the kingdoms of Malwa, Jaunpur and Gujarat had acknowledged independent status. They were not only engaged in fighting each other and other neighbours but regularly encroached on Delhi territory. Multan and Lahore had come under the control of Jasrat Khokhar, who paid scant attention to Delhi and established independent control by taking advantage of the prevalent chaos. Around Delhi, the Mewatis were seething with discontent. This was the state of the Sultanate that Khizr Khan had captured.

Stabilisation Attempts :

Khizr Khan was pragmatic enough to accept the diminished state of the Sultanate and mindful of the fact that he only controlled a small territory around Delhi. Further, he was devoid of the large amount of resources necessary to attempt any major campaigns to recapture seceded regions and return them to the Sultanate fold. He could only attempt minor expeditions with the very limited objective of gathering arears of revenue from the small-time chieftains. Even these minor forays were not always successful. Khizr Khan’s minister Taj-ul-Mulk carried out few raids against the Rajput rulers in Etawah and Katehar with limited success. He managed to collect some amount of revenue, but did not attempt any permanent subjugation or annexation.

At this juncture, as if to create a further debacle for the embattled Sultan, the northern frontier erupted in violence. In 1416, a group of Turkbachchas assassinated Malik Sadhu Nadira, the deputy of Prince Mubarak. On the arrival of Delhi forces to quell the rebellion they fled to the mountains. However, they renewed their rebellion under the command of Tughan Rais. The forces loyal to Delhi managed to suppress the rebellion and Tughan Rais was forced to accept vassal status. To ensure his loyalty in the future, his son was taken and kept as a hostage in Delhi. However, treachery and rebellions continued unabated across the entire Sultanate.

Khizr Khan and his indefatigable minister Taj-ul-Mulk continued to lead punitive expeditions against rebels in order to contain the fires that were being lit on a regular basis. These expeditions, undertaken at enormous cost to a depleted exchequer, were never able to fully extinguish the rebellions, nor were they able to control the chieftains even after they were defeated in battle. The Delhi Sultanate lacked the resources to follow through on battlefield victories and had to be content with minimal tributes that were paid by defeated chiefs and rulers. This situation permitted the chieftains to invariably bounce back and commence yet another rebellion. This was an endless cycle that sapped the strength and resources of an embattled Sultan.

The Nagaur Campaign :

The only long distance campaign that Khizr Khan attempted was an expedition that he led towards Nagaur on the appeal by its ruler for assistance against an incursion by Ahmad Shah of Gujarat. On the approach of Khizr Khan’s army, Ahmad Shah withdrew to Gujarat without offering battle. Some narratives proclaim this withdrawal as Khizr Khan’s victory. However, this is a tenuous claim and it is difficult to accept this verdict of a ‘victory’. At the time of this episode, the Hindu kings of Idar, Champaner, Jhalawar and Nagaur had formed a confederacy to oppose Ahmad Shah who was perpetuating religious intolerance against the Hindus in Gujrat and neighbouring areas. They were also joined by the Muslim ruler of Malwa, who had also been on the receiving end of Ahmad Shah’s offensives. Since the neighbourhood was hostile to him, Ahmad Shah could not have stayed away from Gujarat for a lengthy period of time. This was more so since Malwa was also opposed to him. Therefore the strategic retreat to Gujarat was self-imposed and not really a military victory for the Delhi forces.

In any case, Nagaur accepted Delhi suzerainty although it changed allegiance to Gujarat a mere two years later when it was threatened by Malwa. Even though no battle had been fought or won, the long march out of Delhi and the withdrawal of Ahmad Shah to Gujarat on the arrival of the Delhi forces has a salutary effect on some of the minor chieftains of the region, who submitted to Delhi control without resistance. In the last year of his reign Khizr Khan raided Mewat and destroyed a fortress at Kotla. He went on to sack Gwalior and collected some tribute. This was a show of force that indicated the gradual revival of the power of the Delhi Sultanate. However, Khizr Khan was already a sick man and on his return to Delhi, took to his bed and died on 20 May 1421.

Khizr Khan – The Reluctant Sultan :

Khizr Khan genuinely believed that he owed his stature to the largesse of Timur and therefore displayed unswerving loyalty to Timur and his descendants throughout his life. He was not enamoured by the trappings of power and did not even assume the title of ‘sultan’, living life in the true style of a Sayyid. It was the substance of power that mattered to Khizr Khan and all his policies were marked by prudence and rectitude. In matters of state he displayed remarkably similar traits to that of Firuz Shah—caution, moderation and benevolence. He also displayed an exemplary sense of justice, treating even rivals and adversaries with fairness and generosity. On ascending the throne, he treated the top officials of the Tughluq regime honourably, not shedding blood unnecessarily and not committing any atrocities that usually accompanied the usurpation of the throne. It is also noteworthy that Khizr Khan was free of all the common vices that afflicted the royalty of the time.

When Khizr Khan came to the throne of Delhi, the Sultanate was just one among the many kingdoms that littered the fragmented North India. He made cautious moves to expand territorial holdings, not with much success. Khizr Khan was a sensible monarch and had the good sense to clearly judge and separate the possible from the impossible, prudently tailoring his policies accordingly. He recognised the constraints under which he would have to operate and understood the importance of pursuing one objective at a time. The brutal truth was that the Sultanate did not have the resources necessary to pursue multiple objectives simultaneously. Khizr Khan only attempted to collect revenue from territories close to Delhi, resources that were essential for him to stay on as Sultan. His military expeditions were all oriented towards achieving this aim. Khizr did not formulate any grandiose or ambitious military plans. He did not attempt to fight either Gujarat or Jaunpur, both provinces that were fully independent and more powerful than Delhi. Instead, he concentrated on stamping out sedition within his reach.

While a traditional sultan of the times, he was also liked by his subjects for his thoughtful kindness and attention to their welfare—a trait that was not common amongst rulers in medieval times. His short seven-year rule was on the whole a positive period for the Sultanate, with some very minor developments towards stability taking place. He was unable to restore the prestige of the Sultanate—the odds against him were too high; and his personal abilities and capacity to be decisive under stress could not match the need of the hour. In fact the situation in the Sultanate had deteriorated to such an extent that Khizr Khan was constrained to requisition the services of some Afghan warlords in order to stay in power. Unfortunately, while this move ensured the fragile stability of his rule, it resulted in the ascendancy of the Afghan nobles in the administration. This progression proved disastrous in the long run for the continuance of the Sayyid dynasty.

Mubarak Shah (1421–1434) :

After the death of Khizr Khan, his son Mubarak Shah succeeded him on the throne. Like his father, Mubarak Shah was a wise man and an efficient ruler and remained on the throne from 1421-1434. He used his resources carefully and to the fullest. He was a devout Muslim and cared for his subjects. He was not quite able to possess many areas and kingdoms during his rule and kept suppressing revolts like his father. The city of Mubarakabad was founded by him in the year 1433.

Yahya Bin Sirhindi, a famous historian of his time, in his book Tarikh- i-Mubarak Shah’ has written about his reign as, “The reign of Mubarak Shah was a period of disquiet and rebellions, so his entire reign was spent in suppressing these.” One feature of his reign is remarkable. In the history of Sultanate, for the first time we learn that there were two Hindu Amirs in his reign.” Mubarak Shah built a city on the banks of river Jamuna and named it Mubarkabad. He was assassinated in a plot.

Mausoleum of Mubarak Shah (Sayyid dynasty)

Jasrath, the leader of the Khokars was an aspirant to the throne of Delhi. Mubarak Shah, however, did not make any attempt to recover any territory lost to the Delhi Sultanate. In one respect his reign was a departure from many of his predecessors, for he appointed one or two Hindus to his court. Under him some of the Muslim and Hindu nobles led by Sarwar-ul-Mulk, the wazir, hatched a conspiracy against the Sultan. The conspirators fell on him unawares when he was supervising the construction of a town on the bank of the Jamuna and killed him Sultan Mubarak Shah (February, 1434).

Muhammad Shah (1434-45):

After the death of Mubarak Shah, his brother's son Muhammad Shah succeeded him on the throne since Mubarak Shah did not have a son. Muhammad Shah ruled from 1434-1444. He was not an able ruler and misused his power and position of authority. He lost the trust and affection of his nobles and royal force who had freed him from his captors.

Muhammad Shah was a very weak ruler. The real authority of the Sultan extended merely 40 miles around Delhi. During his reign, disorder and mismanagement prevailed. The ruler of Malwa attacked Delhi during his reign. However with the timely help of Bahlol Lodi, the governor of Lahore and Sirhind, the Sultan was able to face the challenge successfully.

Later on during the reign of Muhammad Shah, Bahlol Lodi tried to capture Delhi but he failed. About the state of affairs during the reign of Muhammad Shah, the historian Nizam-ud-Din wrote, “The affairs of the state grew day by day more and more confused.”

In the meantime, Mahmud Shah Khalji of Malwa showed his gumption to raid Delhi. However, Buhlul Khan Lodi, the governor of Lahore and Sirhind, frustrated the designs of the Malwa ruler. All these led to the decline of the Sayyid Dynasty and it was only a matter of time that dynasty, founded by Khizr Khan, was doomed to annihilation. Muhammad Shah died in 1445. He lies buried in a tomb, located in the Lodhi Gardens in Delhi.

Ala-ud-Din Alam Shah (1445-1451):

Alam Shah was a pleasure-loving, incompetent and weak king. He used to reside at Badaun. According to some historians, he transferred his capital from Delhi to Badaun on account of the fear of Bahlol Lodi, governor of Lahore and Sir-hind. Taking advantage of his absence from Delhi, Bahlol Lodi, supported by Sudan’s ‘Vazir’ occupied Delhi in 1451. Alam Shah continued to live at Badaun till his death in 1478.

Ala-ud-din Alam Shah was the son of Muhammad Shah. He was a man of week and dissolute character and the weakest monarch of the Delhi Sultanate. He ascended the throne as all the chieftains except Bahlul Lodi took an oath of allegiance to him otherwise his dominion was ironically limited for an area of only ten miles from Delhi to Palam. It was aptly styled in a Persian saying: Padshahi-e-Shah Alam az Delhi ta Palam (The kingdom of the Lord of the world extends from Delhi to Palam).

The entire territory of Punjab was now under Bahlul Lodi’s sway. When he made one more abortive attempt for his rule in 1447, the indolent Sultan was obliged to retire and take rest in Badaun in order to spare himself from the constant pressure and troublemaking of Bahlul Lodhi. The capital was left in the charge of the wazir, Hamid Khan. Trouble, however, persisted and Hamid Khan finally invited Bahlul to Delhi and made him commander of the army. But Buhlul who had been dreaming of the throne for years got rid of Hamid Khan and became a full-fledged king in 1451. Alam Shah was left forlorn in Badaun till his death in 1478.

 

[dexter]

Lodi dynasty (1451–1526) :

The Lodhi Dynasty was the first and last Afghan dynasty to rule in South Asia, with the exception of Sher Shah Suri, the only other Afghan who ruled this region. The Lodhi elders served in the court of Firuz Shah and Khizar Khan and held positions of responsibility. Buhlul Lodhi, the founder of the dynasty, was the governor of Sarhind. When the Saiyids became weak, he first occupied the province of Punjab and later on captured the throne of Delhi. His coronation was held on April 19, 1451. He took the title of Sultan Abul Muzzaffar Buhlul Shah Ghazi. In the following era of anarchy, there were a number of attempts to destabilize the newly established rule. But with the help of the Afghans, Buhlul managed to secure the foundations of the House of Lodhis. He also managed to capture a number of nearby states that had become independent in the final days of the Tughluqs and Saiyids.

When Buhlul died in July 1489, his son Nizam Khan succeeded him. Nizam took over the crown on July 17, 1489. He assumed the title of Sikandar Shah. Sikandar proved to be the most capable ruler of the Lodhi Dynasty. He not only managed to crush the revolts of his relatives, but was also able to establish just administration in India. He was the founder of the historical city of Agra. Like his father, Sikandar also died a natural death in November 1516.

After Sikandar’s death, war over the succession of the thrown broke out between his two sons, Ibrahim and Jalal. The nobles, who were interested in their personal benefits, played a key role in creating an atmosphere of disharmony between the two brothers. The war of succession resulted in the weakness of Lodhis, and ultimately resulted in the downfall of their rule. Ibrahim Lodhi was the last of the Sultans of the Lodhi Dynasty. Zahiruddin Babur, the Mughal ruler from Central Asia, attacked India in 1526.Ibrahim’s defeat at the hands of Babur in the first battle of Panipat on April 21 1526, not only resulted in end of Lodhi Dynasty, but also brought an end to the 320 years rule of the Sultans in Delhi. Babur declared himself king and established a monarchy.

Bahlul Lodhi (1451–1489) :

Bahlol Lodhi was the founder of the Lodhi Dynasty. In 1419, Sultan Shah, his uncle was appointed the Governor of Sarhind by Khizar Khan and given the title of Islam Khan. Farishta tells us that Islam Khan married his daughter to Bahlol and although he had his own sons, he nominated Bahlol as his heir on account of his ability. After the death of Islam Khan Bahlol became the governor of Sarhind. He was allowed to add Lahore to his charge. Thus he became a very important governor in Sayyid empire on account of the strength of his forces.

Bahlol Lodhi who had been dreaming of the throne for years, he took early steps to consolidate his position and reassert the authority of Delhi. One of his first acts was to overthrow the Wazir, Hamid Khan who had called him to the throne, and whose influence might have endangered his position. He was very patient with his Afghan tribesmen, and tried to run the government as a tribal chief.

Energetic, ambitious, and vigilant, Bahlol overlooked no opportunity of extending his dominion. He tried to take Multan from Hussain Langah, but did not succeed. He subdued the Hindu chiefs of Mewat and the Doab. An attempt to subdue the Raja of Etawah brought him in conflict with the Sultan of Jaunpur, who claimed suzerainty over the territory but a truce was arranged between the two kingdoms. In 1458, Sultan Hussain Sharqi came to the throne of Jaunpur. His wife Jalilah instigated him to attack Delhi. This led to hostilities which ultimately ended in the capture of Jaunpur by Bahlolin 1479.

Bahlol was not only the founder of the Lodhi dynasty but was responsible for its strength and glory. He was successful in subduing the various chiefs who could defy the central power. He was able to nestablish the prestige of the empire on a firm footing. His great achievement was the annexation of Jaunpur which defied him for many years. Bahlol was forced to spend most of his time in fighting wars and consequently there was hardly any time left for civil administration.

Achievements of Bahlol Lodi as a ruler :

End justifies the means :

Bahlol Lodi was a courageous soldier, successful general, a great diplomat and a realist. He believed in the principle that the end justifies the means. He understood his limitations and circumstances.

Pragmatic dealing with Afghan nobles :

Bahlol won the confidence, cooperation and respect of the Afghan nobles with his very amiable behaviour. He gave them jagirs and high offices. He treated them as friends and considered himself as one of them. In a crisis, he would not hesitate to take off his turban from his head and solicit forgiveness from his Amirs saying, “If you think me unworthy of the situation I occupy, choose someone else and bestow on me some other office.” This paid him dividends. This enabled him to consolidate and utilize the strength of the Afghans in the interest of the state.

It is said about him that he personally attended on the sick nobles.

The Sultan avoided showing his superior status. In the words of S.R. Sharma, “In social meetings he never sat on the throne and would not allow his nobles to stand; and even during public audiences he did not occupy the throne, but seated himself on a carpet.”

Conquests of Bahlol Lodi :

When he ascended the throne, the territory of his kingdom extended upto Palam and a few miles around Delhi. But the time he died at the age of eighty, his empire extended from Panipat to the frontiers of Bihar and included many important towns and cities. A part of Rajasthan was also under him. Bahlol’s most important conquest was that of the state of Jaunpur. This proved his military talents. It added to his resources and raised his prestige among nobles and other rulers.

A devout Muslim :

He was liberal in his general as well as religious outlook. He offered Namaz regularly. He kept the company of the Ulemas, studied Quran carefully but he was not a fanatic. He gave several important offices to the Hindus. Bahlol could be very generous to the defeated enemy. He captured twice the wife of his enemy ruler Hussain Shah but sent her back to her husband honourably both times. Dr. K.S. Lai’s comment on this are, “For a victorious Muslim Sultan in medieval India, this treatment was unique.”

Sikandar Lodhi (1489-1517) :

Bahlol Lodhi was succeeded by his son Nizam Khan who took up the title of Sikandar Shah. There was some hesitation on part of the nobles to accept Sikandar Shah as their ruler as his mother was the daughter of a goldsmith and her son was more of a plebeian than a prince. However this hesitation was overcome and he became the king.

Sikandar Lodhi consolidated the gains made during his father’s reign. Soon after his succession he quelled a serious rebellion in Jaunpur, where the Hindu Zamindars had assembled an army of 100,000 horse and foot. The rebels opposed the advance of royal army but they were defeated with great slaughter and dispersed. Sikandar once again reinstated his brother Barbak Shah and retired towards Oudh.

Sikandar Shah transferred his capital from Delhi to Sikandria, a suberb of Agra, the Sultan wanted to have more effective control over the fief-holders of Etawah, Biyana, Koil, Gawalior and Dholpur. The new city of Agra was founded in 1504 and very soon a beautiful town came into existence. The Sultan also transferred his residence from Delhi to Agra.

Sikandar Shah had to spend a lot of time in fighting but he managed to find some time to look after the administration. He weakened the various chiefs and thereby strengthens his own position. He insisted on the auditing of the accounts of the Afghan Nobles even at the risk of their displeasure. The Sultan encouraged agriculture and abolished corn duties. Traders and merchants were helped in every way to do their work in peace and security. Under the orders of Sultan lists of poor people were prepared every year and they were given Raation for six months. Prisoners were released on certain days in a year.

Sikandar Lodhi was a very striking figure of medieval India. He gave a new orientation to Afghan polity in India and considerably raised the stature and dignity of the office of Sultan. Sikandar Lodhi was an able administrator. There was the peace and prosperity in the country. The common man got justice. The judicial system was efficiently organized under Mian Bhua. He patronized men of letters, artists and poets etc. Unfortunately he was narrow-minded and fanatical in religious matters and injured the feelings of his Hindu subjects.

Greatest Lodi Sultan:

Sikandar Lodi has been accepted as the greatest Lodi Sultan. He established law and order. He was a brave and dauntless general. He encouraged agriculture and trade which resulted in economic prosperity. He enhanced the glory and power of the king. He was known for impartial justice. He asked all governors and officers to submit proper accounts of their income. He himself was a great scholar and patronized men of learning.

Sikandar Lodi’s main achievements are discussed below:

1. Conquests:

First of all Sikandar Lodi defeated his elder brother and seized Jaunpur and brought it under his direct control. He afterwards led his attack on Bihar, defeated its ruler and annexed it. He conquered the states of Dholpur, Bidar, Gwalior, Chanderi and other nearby kingdoms. He entered into a friendship treaty with the ruler of Bengal. Sikandar’s empire extended from the Punjab to the borders of Bengal and included the territories between Sutlej and Bundelkhand.

2. Control over nobles:

His control over his noble was so tight that he could boast, “If I order one of my slaves to be seated in a palanquin, the entire body of nobility would carry him on their shoulders at my bidding.” By his stern justice, code of conduct for the nobles and its strict adherence without any distinction, spy system and following a policy of happy blending of sternness and generosity, he succeeded in commanding the respect of his nobles. Sikandar’s sole motive was to restore the prestige of the Sultan and in that he succeeded.

Important measures that he adopted to strengthen his position were as under:

(i) He started sitting on the throne and compelled his nobles to show formal respect to him in the ‘darbar’ (court) and outside.

(ii) He framed certain rules which were observed by all his nobles and governors.

(iii) The governors were ordered to receive Sultan’s ‘firmans’ (orders) six miles ahead of their capital.

(iv) He asked all his governors and officers to submit their accounts of their income and expenditure. The offenders were punished. The governor of Jaunpur was punished on this very account and compelled to pay the embezzled money.

(v) A very efficient espionage system was organised. He posted spies and informers at every important place including the houses of his nobles.

3. Efficient administration:

Sikandar Shah was a well-meaning Sultan. He was very laborious. He attended to the smallest matter of administration. He worked hard from morning till night to supervise the administrative work.

4. Occasional tours in disguise:

Very often the Sultan toured in disguise to have the first hand information about the condition of the people and the activities of the Amirs and the Ulemas.

5. Efficient espionage system:

He was so well informed about every thing significant in the state through his spy system and his own tours that the people believed the Sultan had supernatural powers to assist him.

6. Impartial justice:

He brought about several reforms in the judicial system. He himself was the highest appeal of justice. He dispensed impartial justice to his subjects.

7. Economic welfare of the people:

He kept with him the rate-list of all articles of everyday use so that he could assess the economic condition of the people. An informal system of price control prevailed in the market which enabled people to get necessities of life at affordable price.

8. Development of agriculture:

He abolished duty on grain and encouraged farmers to improve agriculture.

9. Progress of trade:

The Sultan abolished all internal trade duties.

10. Development of literature:

The Sultan was an accepted scholar. He was well-versed in Persian and composed poems in this language. He was a partron of learned men.

11. Promotion of education:

The Sultan invited two eminent philosophers from outside India to improve the system of education in his empire.

He encouraged education particularly among children of Afghan nobles so as to make them cultured. He made mosques as centres of education.

He appointed one religious preacher, one teacher and one scavenger in each mosque at state expense. His court was a centre of learning and several scholars adorned it.

It is said that about seventy scholars discussed academic and religious problems every night by the side of his bed.

Several scholarly works were translated from Sanskrit into Persian.

12. Promotion of music:

The Sultan took a great interest in music. He enjoyed ‘sehnai’ very much. A reputed work on music titled ‘Lahjat-i- Sikandar Shahi’ was prepared during his reign.

13. Promotion of architecture:

The Sultan built the city of Agra which became an important administrative and cultural centre of the Mughals. He built many mosques and also the tomb of his father Bahlol Lodi in Delhi.

14. Public welfare activities:

The Sultan made suitable arrangements for the free distribution of ration to the poor from the royal treasury and opened free kitchen.

15. Reforms in Islam:

Sikandar tried to check certain customs which he considered bad in Islam. He forbade the visit of Muslim women to the shrines of saints. He prohibited the procession of ‘Tazias at the festival of Moharram.

Lodhi Garden: Sikandar Lodi's Tomb

Ibrahim Lodi (1517 –1526) :

After the death of Sikandar Shah, his eldest son Ibrahim was put on the throne on 21st November 1517 with the unanimous consent of the Afghan Nobles and he took up the title of Ibrahim Shah. He was intelligent, courageous and brave. He had some reputation for piety and orthodoxy. Like his father he was interested in music. As a man, he was generous and kind, but as a ruler he had many shortcomings which were heightened by the adverse circumstances in which he was placed. A faction of the nobility advocated a partition of the kingdom and set up his younger brother Jalal Khan on the throne of Jaunpur. But soon Jalal Khan was assassinated by his brother’s men.

He had a certain amount of vanity and he demanded more implicit obedience than was customary among the Afghans. His treatment of the nobility was on the whole tactless and indiscreet. His policy was calculated to provoke opposition and rebellion. He lacked qualities of generalship and seldom took the field himself. Soon disputes between the king and the Afghan nobles, which were simmering throughout the Lodhi period, became acute and Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of the Punjab and the king’s uncle, invited Babur, the ruler of Kabul, to invade India. After early incursions confined to the north-west and the Punjab, Babur met Ibrahim on 21st April, 1526 in the first battle of Panipat, and, by defeating him and capturing Dehli and Agra, laid the foundation of Mughal rule. This was also the end of Lodhi dynasty with the death of Ibrahim Lodhi at the battlefield of Panipat.

Ibrahim Lodhi an Afghan by blood was the last ruler of the Lodhi dynasty. He succeeded his father Sikander Lodhi but could not match his ability as a ruler. He was defeated by Babur in the battle of Panipat which saw the end of Delhi Sultanate and the beginning of the Mughal reign.

When Sikander died and Ibrahim ascended the throne, he faced resistance from a faction of the nobility.They advocated a partition of the kingdom and set up Jalal Khan-the younger brother of Ibrahim on the throne of Jaunpur. However Jalal was killed by Ibrahim’s men and he claimed the whole empire.
Ibrahim did not have good relations with the nobles. He ill-treated and imprisoned them. He was also cruel to his subjects and killed and poisoned many noblemen. Rebellions started to erupt in various corners of his kingdom. One of his noblemen-Daulat Khan invited Babur to invade India and take revenge on their behalf. Babur responded to his call and set out to meet the Delhi Sultan.

Babur reached Ambala without any resistance and then prudently organized his army in a defensive position. For eight days Babur waited for Ibrahim’s army and when they finally arrived they were surprised by the unique strategy. The use of Turko-Mongol bows by Babur’s men made things worse for Ibrahim as they were unaware of such weapons. Despite having a great numerical advantage
the Afghans lost the battle. However Ibrahim was a brave soldier and led his army from the front and gave his life in the war. Thus the first battle of Panipat (1526) witnessed the establishment of the Mughal kingdom in India.

Main Events of his Reign :

1. Partition of the Kingdom:

The Afghan nobles were divided into two groups. They wanted to divide the empire into two parts.

Ibrahim accepted his proposal and accordingly Jalal Khan, his brother became the ruler of Jaunpur.

However, Ibrahim changed his mind and it resulted in a serious conflict with his brother. Jalal Khan was defeated. Ibrahim got his brother poisoned to death and ruthlessly punished the supporters of Jalal Khan. This act created suspicion and distrust among the Afghan nobles for Ibrahim.

2. Conflict with the Nobles:

Ibrahim Lodi wanted to treat Afghan nobles as his servants. This led to a fierce conflict between Ibrahim and a large number of nobles. The battle was unprecedented. Describing the battle Niamatullah, the author of ‘Tarikh-i-Khan-i- Jahani’ states, “Dead bodies, heap upon heap, covered the field, and the number of heads lying upon the ground was beyond the reach of recollection.”Streams of blood ran over the plain. Brother against brother and father against son, urged by mutual rivalry and in born bravery, mixed in the conflict.

3. Conquest of Gwalior:

The ruler of Gwalior—a Rajput had given shelter to Jalal Khan, brother of Ibrahim. Therefore, Ibrahim attacked and annexed Gwalior to his kingdom.

4. Conflict with Rana Sangram Singh popularly known as Rana Sanga of Mewar:

Encouraged by his success against Gwalior, Ibrahim decided to conquer Mewar whose ruler was Rana Sanga—a great warrior. The armies of Delhi met with several reverses. Ibrahim lost his prestige and resources.

5. Battle of Panipat (1526):

Several Afghan nobles particularly Daulat Khan Lodi, governor of Punjab and Alam Khan Lodi, uncle of Ibrahim Lodi invited Babur, the ruler of Kabul to invade Delhi. This was done to take revenge from Ibrahim Lodi. Babur had already set his eyes upon India. He attacked India with about 12,000 soldiers and a number of cannon (machine guns).

Ibrahim faced Babur at Panipat on April 21, 1526 with a force of about 1, 00,000 soldiers. Ibrahim offered stiff resistance but was defeated and killed in the battlefield. This was perhaps the first instance in the history of Sultanate of Delhi that a Sultan lost his life in the battlefield. Thus came the end of the rule of the Lodi dynasty and the beginning of the Mughal rule in India.

Fall of the empire :

By the time Ibrahim ascended the throne, the political structure in the Lodi Dynasty had dissolved due to abandoned trade routes and the depleted treasury. The Deccan was a coastal trade route, but in the late fifteenth century the supply lines had collapsed. The decline and eventual failure of this specific trade route resulted in cutting off supplies from the coast to the interior, where the Lodi empire resided. The Lodi Dynasty was not able to protect itself if warfare were to break out on the trade route roads; therefore, they didn’t use those trade routes, thus their trade declined and so did their treasury leaving them vulnerable to internal political problems. In order to take revenge of the insults done by Ibrahim, the governor of Lahore, Daulat Khan Lodi asked the ruler of Kabul, Babur to invade his kingdom. Ibrahim Lodi was thus killed in a battle with Babur. With the death of Ibrahim Lodi, the Lodi dynasty also came to an end.

Another problem Ibrahim faced when he ascended the throne in 1517 were the Pashtun nobles, some of whom supported Ibrahim's older brother, Jalaluddin, in taking up arms against his brother in the area in the east at Jaunpur. Ibrahim gathered military support and defeated his brother by the end of the year. After this incident, he arrested those Pashtun nobles who opposed him and appointed his own men as the new administrators. Other Pashtun nobles supported the governor of Bihar, Dariya Khan, against Ibrahim.
Another factor that caused uprisings against Ibrahim was his lack of an apparent successor. His own uncle, Alam Khan, betrayed Ibrahim by supporting the Mughal invader Babur.

Rana Sanga, the Hindu Rajput leader of Mewar (r. 1509–1526), extended his kingdom, defeated the Lodi king of Delhi and was acknowledged by all the Rajput clans as the leading prince of Rajputana. Daulat Khan, the governor of Punjab region asked Babur to invade the Lodi kingdom, with the thought of taking revenge from Ibrahim Lodi. Rana Sanga also offered his support to Babur to defeat Ibrahim Lodi.

After being assured of the cooperation of Alam Khan and Daulat Khan, Governor of the Punjab, Babur gathered his army. Upon entering the Punjab plains, Babur's chief allies, namely Langar Khan Niazi advised Babur to engage the powerful Janjua Rajputs to join his conquest. The tribe's rebellious stance to the throne of Delhi was well known. Upon meeting their chiefs, Malik Hast (Asad) and Raja Sanghar Khan, Babur made mention of the Janjua's popularity as traditional rulers of their kingdom and their ancestral support for his patriarch Emir Timur during his conquest of Hind. Babur aided them in defeating their enemies, the Gakhars in 1521, thus cementing their alliance. Babur employed them as Generals in his campaign for Delhi, the conquest of Rana Sanga and the conquest of India.

The new usage of guns allowed small armies to make large gains on enemy territory. Small parties of skirmishers who had been dispatched simply to test enemy positions and tactics, were making inroads into India. Babur, however, had survived two revolts, one in Kandahar and another in Kabul, and was careful to pacify the local population after victories, following local traditions and aiding widows and orphans.

Despite both being Sunni Muslims, Babur wanted Ibrahim's power and territory. Babur and his army of 24,000 men marched to the battlefield at Panipat armed with muskets and artillery. Ibrahim prepared for battle by gathering 100,000 men (well-armed but with no guns) and 1,000 elephants. Ibrahim was at a disadvantage because of his outmoded infantry and internecine rivalries. Even though he had more men, he had never fought in a war against gunpowder weapons and he did not know what to do strategically. Babur pressed his advantage from the start and Ibrahim perished on the battlefield in April 1526, along with 20,000 of his men.

After Ibrahim's death, Babur named himself emperor over Ibrahim’s territory, instead of placing Alam Khan (Ibrahim's uncle) on the throne. Ibrahim's death marked the end of the Lodi dynasty and led to the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India. The remaining Lodi territories were absorbed into the new Mughal Empire. Babur continued to engage in more military campaigns.

Ibrahim Lodi's brother, Mahmud Lodi, declared himself Sultan and continued to resist Mughal forces. He provided 10,000 Afghan soldiers to Rana Sanga in battle of Khanwa. After the defeat, Mahmud Lodi fled eastwards and again posed a challenge to Babur two years later at the Battle of Ghaghra.

 

[Kamikaze Pilot]

Budha was born here in Pakistan/QUOTE]
What is your source?

 

[Pakistansdefender]

All of the Buddhist history kinddom lies here and there are countless sources..
His empire likes in these lands. The religion of Buddhism started here.