Indian Space Capabilities

[Choppers]

ISRO aims for the skies, targets space tourism​

7 Apr 2010, 0956 hrs IST,Peerzada Abrar,ET Bureau

BANGALORE: Even as countries are vying to grab a share of the tourism pie, ISRO is aiming at the skies, literally. They are seriously taking up

the challenge of pursuing space tourism in a big way.

Newly-appointed chief of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Dr K Radhakrishnan says the space agency is exploring new strategies and technologies for human space flight programmes, low-cost access to space tourism and the colonisation of Mars and the Moon.

As of 2009, space tourism opportunities have been limited and expensive, with the Russian Space Agency providing this facility. The price for a flight brokered by Space Adventures to the International Space Station aboard a Soyuz spacecraft is $20-35 million. Space tourists usually sign contracts with third parties to conduct certain research while in orbit. This helps minimise their own expenses.

Countries like the US, Russia and Japan have already started work to have a habitat in Mars by 2030 and are devising a transportation system to reach Mars.

"Space tourism is something where India can play a niche role with its affordable solutions. However, this will take some time," says Ajey Lele from the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA). But the fact that this is an achievable challenge was evident when he said: "India’s Chandrayaan programme was less costly than the private jet gifted by Mukesh Ambani to his wife."

A suborbital spaceship owned by aspiring space tourism operator Virgin Galactic was airlifted into the skies over California’s Mojave Desert recently for its debut test flight. The six-passenger ship, VSS Enterprise, remained attached to the center of its carrier aircraft throughout the flight. Virgin Galactic, an offshoot of London-based Virgin Group, has collected about $45 million in deposits and fares from more than 330 amateur astronauts, each of whom will be charged $200,000 to experience a few minutes of suborbital spaceflight.

Back in India, ISRO was allocated a budget of $1.27 billion for 2009-2010 and the plan allocation for India’s human space flight programme was Rs 5,000 crore. ISRO scientists have started work to reach Mars, put an orbiter there by using the capabilities of its workhorse launch vehicles like PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle), GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle) and GSLV Mark 3.

"There are various strategies to reach Mars. It is a 250-day journey and there will be opportunities in 2030, 2060 and 2080," said Dr Radhakrishnan, an alumni of IIM-Bangalore.

"The previous experiments were achieved with a shoestring budget, which is just 3% of Nasa's expenditure on space programmes," said Dr Radhakrishnan. He said that ISRO has 2-3 launches a year and in the coming year, they plan 6-8 launches per year.

Buoyed by the success of Chandrayaan-I, Indian space scientists now plan to conquer new frontiers by sending robots to the moon in 2012 and a spacecraft to Mars the following year which will also see an Indian astronaut in space.

ISRO is now developing a heavier cryogenic engine, almost three times powerful than the home-grown cryogenic engine used in GSAT-4, which is going to be launched in April 2010.

Dr Radhakrishnan said that if they have to put a payload in the orbit now, they have to pay $20,000 per kg using PSLV and GSLV launch vehicles

but using GSLV Mark 3 this can significantly be pulled at least by half.

"We also need to use innovative methods such as semi-cryogenic engine developed, in which we replace the liquid hydrogen by purified kerosene. The price comes down drastically," said Dr Radhakrishnan.

"If we have re-usability, we can improve the cost of putting the satellite in the orbit. We have a system of reusable launch vehicle technology demonstrator, using a small solid rocket. We are putting a winged body to an altitude that can fly at hyper sonic speeds and looking at reentry", said Dr Radhakrishnan. Radhakrishnan said that all the cutting edge technologies as output in Robotics, Biology, Bio-Astronautics, will lead to spin offs which are going to benefit the common people in the area telemedicine, security, navigation, Education, disaster management, cyclone warning systems and emergency communication.

"More than 200 places in India are disaster prone related to draught, flood, land slides and cyclones", said Dr Radhakrishnan. He said in future, ISRO is going to increase the number of communication transponders from 211 to 500 by 2040, as the demand is increasing. This way more applications can be initiated.

ISRO aims for the skies, targets space tourism-ET Cetera-News By Industry-News-The Economic Times

 

[Choppers]

ISRO aims for the skies, targets space tourism​

7 Apr 2010, 0956 hrs IST,Peerzada Abrar,ET Bureau

BANGALORE: Even as countries are vying to grab a share of the tourism pie, ISRO is aiming at the skies, literally. They are seriously taking up

the challenge of pursuing space tourism in a big way.

Newly-appointed chief of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Dr K Radhakrishnan says the space agency is exploring new strategies and technologies for human space flight programmes, low-cost access to space tourism and the colonisation of Mars and the Moon.

As of 2009, space tourism opportunities have been limited and expensive, with the Russian Space Agency providing this facility. The price for a flight brokered by Space Adventures to the International Space Station aboard a Soyuz spacecraft is $20-35 million. Space tourists usually sign contracts with third parties to conduct certain research while in orbit. This helps minimise their own expenses.

Countries like the US, Russia and Japan have already started work to have a habitat in Mars by 2030 and are devising a transportation system to reach Mars.

"Space tourism is something where India can play a niche role with its affordable solutions. However, this will take some time," says Ajey Lele from the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA). But the fact that this is an achievable challenge was evident when he said: "India’s Chandrayaan programme was less costly than the private jet gifted by Mukesh Ambani to his wife."

A suborbital spaceship owned by aspiring space tourism operator Virgin Galactic was airlifted into the skies over California’s Mojave Desert recently for its debut test flight. The six-passenger ship, VSS Enterprise, remained attached to the center of its carrier aircraft throughout the flight. Virgin Galactic, an offshoot of London-based Virgin Group, has collected about $45 million in deposits and fares from more than 330 amateur astronauts, each of whom will be charged $200,000 to experience a few minutes of suborbital spaceflight.

Back in India, ISRO was allocated a budget of $1.27 billion for 2009-2010 and the plan allocation for India’s human space flight programme was Rs 5,000 crore. ISRO scientists have started work to reach Mars, put an orbiter there by using the capabilities of its workhorse launch vehicles like PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle), GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle) and GSLV Mark 3.

"There are various strategies to reach Mars. It is a 250-day journey and there will be opportunities in 2030, 2060 and 2080," said Dr Radhakrishnan, an alumni of IIM-Bangalore.

"The previous experiments were achieved with a shoestring budget, which is just 3% of Nasa's expenditure on space programmes," said Dr Radhakrishnan. He said that ISRO has 2-3 launches a year and in the coming year, they plan 6-8 launches per year.

Buoyed by the success of Chandrayaan-I, Indian space scientists now plan to conquer new frontiers by sending robots to the moon in 2012 and a spacecraft to Mars the following year which will also see an Indian astronaut in space.

ISRO is now developing a heavier cryogenic engine, almost three times powerful than the home-grown cryogenic engine used in GSAT-4, which is going to be launched in April 2010.

Dr Radhakrishnan said that if they have to put a payload in the orbit now, they have to pay $20,000 per kg using PSLV and GSLV launch vehicles

but using GSLV Mark 3 this can significantly be pulled at least by half.

"We also need to use innovative methods such as semi-cryogenic engine developed, in which we replace the liquid hydrogen by purified kerosene. The price comes down drastically," said Dr Radhakrishnan.

"If we have re-usability, we can improve the cost of putting the satellite in the orbit. We have a system of reusable launch vehicle technology demonstrator, using a small solid rocket. We are putting a winged body to an altitude that can fly at hyper sonic speeds and looking at reentry", said Dr Radhakrishnan. Radhakrishnan said that all the cutting edge technologies as output in Robotics, Biology, Bio-Astronautics, will lead to spin offs which are going to benefit the common people in the area telemedicine, security, navigation, Education, disaster management, cyclone warning systems and emergency communication.

"More than 200 places in India are disaster prone related to draught, flood, land slides and cyclones", said Dr Radhakrishnan. He said in future, ISRO is going to increase the number of communication transponders from 211 to 500 by 2040, as the demand is increasing. This way more applications can be initiated.

ISRO aims for the skies, targets space tourism-ET Cetera-News By Industry-News-The Economic Times

 

[Justin Joseph]

US concerned over Indian satellite communication regulations

Press Trust of India
Posted: Wednesday, Apr 07, 2010 at 2332 hrs IST
Washington: The United States has expressed concern over Indian rules over the provision of satellite capacity saying the system lacks transparency.

“A lack of transparency in the rules governing the provision of satellite capacity in these countries ( China and India ) is also a concern”, US trade representative Ron Kirk said. He added China and India both generally require that foreign satellite capacity be sold through an intermediary—ChinaDBSat or the Indian Space Research Organisation (Isro), respectively. These comments were made by the Kirk in his report where he said experts have expressed concern that India and Mexico require mobile satellite operators to install local gateways as a condition for providing satellite services into their territories.

Mobile satellite services (MSS) refers to networks of communications satellites intended for use with mobile and portable wireless telephones. The report named ‘1377 Review’ addresses several general themes—fixed and mobile call termination rates in El Salvador, Jamaica, Japan, Peru, and Tonga; problems with major suppliers in Australia, China, Germany, India, Mexico, and Singapore.

It also addresses issues affecting the telecommunications equipment trade in Brazil , China , European Union , India , Indonesia , Korea , Malaysia , Mexico , and Thailand and other issues including frequency allocation in Costa Rica and transparency in China .

“Commenters consider these requirements burdensome and unnecessary from a technical standpoint to address the security concerns these countries have raised. USTR will continue to raise the commenters concerns with China , India and Mexico regarding these issues,” the report said. US has urged the Trai to allow for a full vetting of issues through public consultations.

US concerned over Indian satellite communication regulations

 

[Kinetic]

"Space tourism is something where India can play a niche role with its affordable solutions. However, this will take some time," says Ajey Lele from the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA). But the fact that this is an achievable challenge was evident when he said: "India’s Chandrayaan programme was less costly than the private jet gifted by Mukesh Ambani to his wife."

I extremely like this kind of words!! He just made a house with $ 2 billion as well while many Indians are still very poor. Any other person would have shame to waste money in such a way.

Back in India, ISRO was allocated a budget of $1.27 billion for 2009-2010 and the plan allocation for India’s human space flight programme was Rs 5,000 crore. ISRO scientists have started work to reach Mars, put an orbiter there by using the capabilities of its workhorse launch vehicles like PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle), GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle) and GSLV Mark 3.

That is an old news. Just after Chandrayaan-2, ISRO will launch first Mars mission by 2013/14.

 

[Mauryan]

^^^,

That is not something new. Considering the unreliable nature of US,GOI has put some regulations in place.If any foreign nation has to do business with India, it has to abide the rules and regulations of this country instead of showing concerns.

If showing concerns is the known way, then India has to show concerns in each and every thing that US does.

We dont want to screw our domestic operators by trusting in US particularly.So does the need for a regulator.

 

[Choppers]

"There are various strategies to reach Mars. It is a 250-day journey and there will be opportunities in 2030, 2060 and 2080," said Dr Radhakrishnan, an alumni of IIM-Bangalore.

Correction.

There are various strategies for reaching Mars. It's a 250 day journey (for Mars). We are working on it. The years 2013, 2016 and 2018 offers good opportunity for ISRO to launch Mars mission," he added.

Link:spacedaily.com India_To_Cut_Satellite_Launch_Cost_By_Half

 

[Choppers]

No Russian involvement in developing of cryogenic engine: ISRO​

Bangalore, Apr 7 (PTI)

Indian Space Research Organisation on Wednesday said there was no Russian involvement in the design and production of cryogenic engine that is developed by New Delhi indigenously and declared that it's a befitting reply to the technology denial regimes.

India is set to test the home-grown cryogenic stage and technology -- developed after 18 years of research -- in its rocket, GSLV, on April 15 from the Sriharikota spaceport.

Asked at a press conference here if Russians were involved in the development of cryogenic technology, ISRO Chairman K Radhakrishnan said India certainly learnt a lot working with Moscow and it was a "good learning experience".

But he asserted: "The (cryogenic) engine is designed by our own engineers, our own industry fabricated it, tested...". He added: "It's Indian. You should be proud of it".
ISRO officials recalled that the US exerted pressure on Russia not to provide cryogenic technology and India took a bold decision in 1992 to develop it indigenously.

Of the seven engines supplied by Russia earlier, ISRO has used five. Radhakrishnan said India developing this complex technology is a "befitting reply" to technology denial regimes.
"About Rs 335 crore is the amount used for the development (of indigenous cryogenic engine and stage)," Radhakrishnan said.

The Rs 175-crore GSLV-D3 would carry the Rs 150-crore, 2220 kg GSAT-4 experimental communications satellite in the proposed mission on April 15. The ISRO chairman said the PSLV mission, which would launch Cartosat-2B, an Algerian satellite, two Canadian nano-satellite, and Studsat developed by Indian students, is slated in the first half of May.

No Russian involvement in developing of cryogenic engine: ISRO

 

[RadyLeo]

self deleted

 

[Choppers]

Human habitation possible in tunnels below moon's surface

Bangalore, Apr 7 (PTI)

India's Chandrayaan-1 mission has identified tunnels below the surface of the moon, a top space scientist said today and maintained that human habitation could be possible in those ''tubes'' in the future.

Director of Indian Space Research Organisation's Space Applications Centre based in Ahmedabad, Dr Ranganath R Navalgund said the terrain mapping camera, an Indian instrument on the lunar mission, has found "new types of rocks" and hollow tunnels.

These tubes were formed after the flow of lava from volcanoes, he contended.

"Tubes which are hollow have been found below the surface of the moon. Such things have also been identified from the Chandrayaan mission ... from terrain mapping camera ... which was our own instrument".

"Now those tunnels which have not collapsed ... which are below the surface of the moon and which have been identified ... are somewhat interesting features," Navalgund told reporters here.

"Not today, not tomorrow but in years to come, they (those tunnels) could be possible areas where one could have certain habitation....", he said, adding that scientists were currently investigating this finding

Human habitation possible in tunnels below moon's surface

 

[vimki]

After Chandrayaan, India set to launch GSLV​

Bangalore: After the success of mission Chandrayaan, ISRO to launch a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) - that will be powered by an indigenous cryogenic engine on April 15.
With the launch India would join an elite club of countries that have this sophisticated technology. The cryogenic engines are more efficient and provide more thrust. It will help ISRO launch heavier satellites in the future. In fact in the 90s, the US had prevented Russia from transferring cryogenic technology to India.

“We're talking about a technology that only five countries in the world possess today. It’s a technology which one country prevented another country from transferring which are the geo-political ramifications of this technology," said ISRO Chairman K Radhakrishnan.

For ISRO, developing the technology was critical for its plans to launch more sophisticated satellites.
“We got seven stages from Russia but if we have to continue our program and to launch communication satellites, transponders in the orbit, we need to have this technology. So it was imperative for us to develop it and we're realising this in India," added Radhakrishnan.
On April 15, ISRO will launch an advanced communication satellite - the GSAT- 4. With the cryogenic technology now powering it, the space agency will be launching many more sophisticated satellites in the future.

 

[blueoval79]

Cryogenic rocket engine to propel India into elite club


Come April 15, India will join an elite club of five other nations having the cryogenic engine technology that would give enhanced power to its rockets to lift off into space.

On that day, the Indian Space Research Organisation (Isro) will demonstrate the indigenously developed cryogenic engine upper stage technology while launching the advanced Rs150-crore GSAT-4 satellite onboard the geo-stationary satellite launch vehicle (GSLV)-D3 rocket, Isro chairman K Radhakrishnan said. The lift-off of GSLV-D3 has been scheduled at 4.27 pm on April 15 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) in Sriharikota.

The cryogenic engine for the Rs175-crore GSLV-D3 will provide almost twice the power to lift-off as compared to the existing capacity of rockets.

Isro scientists said a cryogenic engine was a rocket motor designed to maintain liquid fuels in liquid form at temperatures much below zero degree Celsius.

The engine components are also cooled so that the liquid fuel does not boil to a gaseous state while being fed to the engine. The powerful thrust comes from the rapid expansion from liquid to gas with the gas emerging from the motor at very high speed.

Cryogenic engines are known to be the most powerful rocket engines. The other five countries in possession of this engine technology are the US, Russia, France, Japan and China.

“Isro has achieved the feat after 18 years of research in the technology which was initiated when the pact with Russia (to supply cryogenic engines to India) did not go on expected lines,” said Radhakrishnan. The technology is expected to reduce India’s dependency on Russia or any other country for the engine technology.

“However, it will be two months before we announce that the project has been successful as we have to carry out several tests. It will have a huge application when it will be launched on commercial basis,” said RR Navalgund, director, Isro Space Applications Centre (ISAC).

Cryogenic rocket engine to propel India into elite club - dnaindia.com

 

[Justin Joseph]

US arm twisting tactics prodded ISRO

Correspondent
Thursday, April 08, 2010 AT 07:42 PM (IST)

BENGALURU: Space scientists have cocked a snook at "big brother" US by developing cryogenic technology which it tried to prevent Indian Space Research Organisation from importing from Russia.


Undeterred by a US ban in 1992, a team of scientists led by then Chairman U.R.Rao embarked on a plan to develop the technology indigenously.

After 17 years of relentless effort, ISRO is on the verge of launching its first rocket powered by home grown cryogenic engine

"We have done it" is Rao's response, hailing the ISRO team for overcoming hurdles in developing the technology

Most of the work on cryogenic engine was done at Isro's Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) at Mahendragiri in Tamil Nadu.

The Geo stationary launch vehicle will be fired into orbit from Sriharikota launch pad on April 15. If it is successfully launched, India will join an elite club comprising US.Russia, France , Japan and China which has cryogenic technology.

"It's Indian. You should be proud of it" exclaimed ISRO's Chairman K.Radhakrishnan, who had played a key role in the successful launch of ISRO's first unmanned moon mission Chandrayaan-I.

"The (cryogenic) engine is designed by our own engineers; our own industry fabricated it and tested it" said Radhakrishnan.

What got Isro's goat was the manner in which America arm-twisted Russia to go back on a deal with India to supply cryogenic engines.

Despite ISRO's assurance that its programmes were civilian related, the US applied pressure, forcing the Russian company Glavkosmos to cancel the deal.

United States alleged that the sale of cryogenic engines violated the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) guidelines since cryogenic technology could be used to propel missiles.

Immediately after deal went sour, Rao hit out at the US, saying India will not cowed down by such tactics.

Rao called the US action " uncalled for" and indicated that the US did not want India to enter the multibilllion dollar global satellite launch market.

India can launch heavy communication satellites using cryogenic engines at thirty per cent less than the US.

Cryogenic technology will help launch two tonne satellites using GSLV rockets with a greater deal of efficiency.

The development programme of GSLV, considered a major challenge for Isro , had been hit by US sanctions. An embargo was first imposed in 1992. followed by a second ban after India's nuclear tests in 1998.

Sakaal Times

 

[indiatech]

GSLV-D3 / GSAT-4 MISSION Background

http://www.isro.org/news/pdf/GSLV-D3.pdf

 

[Mauryan]

US arm twisting tactics prodded ISRO


Sakaal Times

But isnt it good for India?
Definitely its a blessing in the disguise.Though many people cry foul at the sanctions,but the scientific community is utterly happy with what has happened.
Indians infact suffer with hanumanophobia.which means not knowing thier self standards and often discard thier capabilities.

Because of phokran tests,west sopped selling reactors to india.We started developing our own with more jeal to get sucesses.Today we got our hands on PHWRs,Fast breeders,AHWRs using our very own knowledge and capabilities.And its the very same west that invited India to join ITER.

Same with defence equipment.After 98 everyone stopped supplying them.Started developing our own alternatives and today we are almost there near the self reliance. If the sanctions are even continuing,we might have been developing more and many engineers might have been working in India itself instead of working for those foreign manufacturers.

Same with ISRO.If US have left russia supplying those old cryo engines, we might have been importing them all the way,untill we found a solution of our own.

US sanctioned India from importing of super-computers with a fear that they will be used for the simulation of nuclear detonations.Result of that? India has developed a series of processors and supercomputers of its own for its own nuclear simulations and research in fluid dynamics,...... Today ISRO is a position to design its own processor and can fabricate wapers of nano meters thickness.

Having all said, The losses to US are more than the losses incurred by India.

eye opener:

Going Alone on Economic Sanctions Hurts U.S. More than Foes
According to the president's Export Council, the United States has imposed more than 40 trade sanctions against about three-dozen countries since 1993.
The council estimates that those sanctions have cost American exporters $15 billion to $19 billion in lost annual sales overseas and caused long-term damage to U.S. companies--lost market share and reputations abroad as unreliable suppliers.

Economic sanctions are especially damaging when applied to "duel use" technology. U.S. companies face a web of controls that inhibit exporting high-speed computers and other high-tech goods that, while civilian in nature, could conceivably be used by a hostile regime for military purposes.

Export controls on high-tech goods suffer from two fatal flaws: The first is that similar technology can often be obtained off the shelf from foreign competitors. Export controls succeed only in cutting U.S. firms out of fast-growing foreign markets without enhancing national security one bit.

The second flaw is that whatever controls are written into law are quickly outdated by Moore's law of technological advancement. Today's "supercomputer" inevitably becomes tomorrow's high-end PC.

As well as inflicting economic damage, trade sanctions have been a foreign policy flop. A comprehensive study by the Institute for International Economics found that sanctions have achieved their objectives in fewer than 20 percent of cases. For example, the Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act of 1994 failed to deter India and Pakistan from testing nuclear weapons in May 1998.
Trade sanctions seldom work because of the competitive global marketplace and the nature of regimes most likely to arouse America's ire. Although the United States is by far the world's largest economy, its global economic leverage is limited. The United States accounts for only 13 percent of the world's merchandise exports and 16 percent of its imports. If Washington seeks to punish another country by unilaterally withholding exports, such as farm products, computers, or oil-drilling services, other global suppliers stand ready to fill the gap.

 

[Choppers]

GSLV-D3 ready for launch on April 15​

T. S. SUBRAMANIAN
CHENNAI, April 9, 2010

GSLV D3 wich will lift off from April 15 is seen on the laucn pad at Sriharikota on Friday. Photo: V. Ganesan.

There is an air of expectancy at Sriharikota even as the Geo-synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV-D3) stands gleaming in off-white and grey on the beachside launch pad of the island. It was fitted together at the towering Vehicle Assembly Building and moved to the pad on April 7. The vehicle, 49 metres tall and weighing 419 tonnes, was married up with the satellite GSAT-4 earlier. When the vehicle lifts off at 4.27 p.m. on April 15, it will be a major riposte to the United States' technology denial tactics.

“Crucial mission”

“The vehicle has been assembled and is ready for the launch,” Mission Director G. Ravindranath told journalists at the spaceport on Friday. He called it “a crucial mission because we are flying our own cryogenic stage for the first time in this flight.” It was “the most reviewed vehicle” and the result of “our efforts of the last 19 years. We started in 1991 and we have reached this stage despite technology denials.”

The entire flight from lift-off will last 1,022 seconds. Of this duration, the indigenous cryogenic engine alone will fire for 720 seconds. At the end of 1,022 seconds, the cryogenic engine will catapult the communication satellite GSAT-4 into the orbit at a velocity of 10.2 km a second. It will be a geo-synchronous transfer orbit (GTO) with a perigee of 170 km and an apogee of 36,000 km.

The cryogenic stage was built at the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC), Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu. Cryogenic engines are crucial for putting communication satellites weighing more than two tonnes into a GTO. Cryogenic technology involves the use of liquid oxygen at minus 183 degrees Celsius and liquid hydrogen at minus 253 degrees Celsius.

Mohammed Muslim, Project Director, Cryogenic Upper Stage Project (CUSP), said the cryogenic technology was the most complex one to be developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). “It has taken us 15 years to achieve this. It is normal time for any country and we are the sixth country to acquire this technology [after the U.S., Russia, Europe, Japan and China]. This is a highly guarded technology.” The ISRO had not taken chances with this mission and “the vehicle has been reviewed and checked point by point any number of times,” he said.

The ISRO built the cryogenic engine from scratch after the U.S. pressured Russia in April 1992 and July 1993 into agreeing not to sell cryogenic technology to India. In January 1991, India and the erstwhile Soviet Union had reached an agreement, under which the Soviet space agency, Glavkosmos, would sell cryogenic stages and transfer the cryogenic technology to India.

Goes back on pact

Under U.S. pressure, Russia in July 1993 went back on its agreement to transfer the cryogenic technology. In lieu of the technology, it agreed to sell two additional cryogenic stages to India. The last five flights of the GSLV from Sriharikota were powered by the Russian cryogenic stages. A cryogenic stage includes the engine, propellant tanks, motor casing and wiring.

Mr. Ravindranath said it took the ISRO all these years to develop the cryogenic technology because it had to develop special materials.

(At very low temperatures of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, metals become brittle. The ISRO, therefore, had to develop new alloys, new welding techniques and new types of lubricants).

7-year mission life

Satellite Director M. Nageswara Rao said GSAT-4 would have a mission life of seven years. One of the payloads would help passenger aircraft land accurately despite poor visibility.

The Hindu : Sci-Tech / Science : GSLV-D3 ready for launch on April 15