The Evolution Of The Submarine As A Warship

[Manticore]

Elektroboot submarines (1935 – 1955)




Above: Elektroboot - the smooth lines of U-2540, now a tourist attraction

Until the birth of Elektroboots, submarines had essentially been “submersibles”, i.e. warships with the temporary ability to submerge.
Elektroboot U-boats were the first true submarines, i.e. warships specifically designed to operate entirely submerged, rather than a temporary means to launch an attack or evade detection.
There was nothing in the Allied arsenal that could match what was thought to be the parameters of the new type of German U-boat that was being built in considerable numbers. Naval intelligence and encounters by Allied shipping revealed there to be a new and substantially faster U-boat (the Type XXI), that could remain fully submerged for unheard of lengths of time.

Suddenly the days of ‘sitting on top’ of a U-boat until they ran out of breathable air were gone. The speed advantage a surface escort vessel had in chasing after a submerged U-boat was reversed – these new high-speed U-boats could outrun some escort warships. And why, according to some prisoner of war, were the hulls covered with rubber sheeting ? Type XXI submarines were also far more ‘acoustically quiet’ than the Type VIIC U-boats, making them harder to detect when submerged (see U-480 below).

For those in military circles there were more questions than answers – and if counter-measures were to be devised those answers could not come quickly enough.

Today the streamlining of a hull is the expected norm and may even be regarded as unexciting and commonplace but the streamlined of U-boat designs of 1942 were far from ‘the norm’ and alternately agitated and excited Allied military planners to the point of ringing alarm bells.

Genesis

The gifted rocket designer Hellmuth Walter, better known for his rocket-powered aircraft (most notably the Me 163 Komet) [1], had been advocating the use of hydrogen peroxide. This work had begun before 1939 and most of his early efforts were directed towards hydrogen peroxide for use as a submarine propulsion alternative to the reliance on the diesel-electric combination.

The first submarine – the firstElektroboot – using Walter’s hydrogen peroxide propulsion system was known as V80. Built at Kiel during 1939 – 40 it was driven by a single turbine (20,000 rpm), she was 77 ft in length and had a crew of 4.

Left: Illustration of V80

The V80 was built purely for research purposes and thus unarmed. V80 had a short life. She was taken out of service at the end of 1942, and was scuttled at Hela in March 1945, but not before successful sea trials and she had shattered the underwater speed recordata speed of 28 knots. The illustration tends to suggest this speed was achieved by streamlining and not the propulsion system alone.

Another Elektroboot was the Type XXIII submarines. Unlike the V80, which was only experimental, this class of U-boat (254 tons) was built in significant numbers and became operational. Their length (114 ft) was so small by contemporty U-boat standards that they could carry only two torpedoes (which had to be loaded externally).

Right: U-2367, a Type XXIII designed for coastal duties

To maximise production ‘parallel construction’ began at shipyards as far apart as France, Italy, German occupied USSR and Germany itself. The specifications demanded that it be transportable by rail are therefore not that surprising. Time pressures and restricted resource meant that it was partly based on the Type II coastal U-boat already in service and the proposed Type XXII which is also listed in the table below.

Designed as a small coastal submarines the Type XXIII operated in the shallow waters of the North Sea, Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea. In the closing pages of the war five Allied ships were sunk by Type XXIII boats with no losses to the attacking U-boats.

Sixty one boats of the Type XXIII were completed: seven Type XXIIIs were sunk before reaching full operational status; thirty one were scuttled at the end of the war; twenty were surrendered to the Allies and only three survived the war (U-2326, U-2353 and U-4706).

The fate of the 7 that were sunk is as follows:

• U-2331 – Oct 10 1944, disappeared while on training in the Baltic; cause unknown
• U2342 – Dec 26 1944, hit a mine in the Baltic
• U-2344 – Feb 18 1945, sunk after collision with U-2366 while on training in the Baltic
• U-2359 – May 12 1945, sunk by British aircraft in the Kattegat
• U-2338 – May 4 1945, sunk by British aircraft in the Baltic
• U-2367 – May 5 1945, sunk after collision with another U-boat in the Green Belt area
• U-2365 – May 5 1945, sunk by British aircraft in the Kattegat

Ocean-going Elektroboots

The second of the elektroboots to see active service was the Type XXI. At 2,100 tons and with speed of 17 knots, and with a range of 15,500 nautical miles, these U-boats presented the biggest danger to the Allied shipping lanes (see U-2540 featured at the top of this page). It also made them the focus of a stampede between the “Allies” to capture as many intact examples as possible when Germany surrendered (May 1945).

Production began in 1943 using eight prefabricated hull sections which were then taken to the shipyards for final assembly.

Left: A model of U-3017, a Type XXI U-boat operated by Royal Navy as HMS N41

This method could have resulted in a turn-around time for each new vessel of only 6 months but the assembled U-boats were plagued with quality assurance problems which required extensive post-production repairs. The average completion time was 18 months. Mass production of the new type did not really get started until 1944. Had they been available 2 years earlier and in numbers over 20 they could have influenced the end of the war.

Nonetheless, 118 Type XXI were under construction by the end of the war and several were actually commissioned and operational. For instance, U-2511 and U-3008 were completed in time to go on war patrols. – but they were the only Type XXI to do so.

Features of the new Type XXI included;

• greater battery capacity
• improved dive times
• the ability to ‘sprint’ into position for an attack submerged (older type U-boats had to sprint into position of the surface making them vulnerable)
• the new hull design also reduced the boat’s radar ‘visibility’ when surfaced
• a hydraulic torpedo reloading system allowed all six bow torpedo tubes to be reloaded faster than a Type VIIC could reload one tube
• Type XXI could fire 18 torpedoes in under 20 minutes
• very sensitive ‘passive’ sonar were fitted to Type XXI
• it had better ‘facilities’ than previous U-boats, including a freezer to keep food fresher for longer
• deck furniture and fittings were retractable.

The cleaner lines of the German U-boats are best shown off in the above picture of a model Type XXI. (A better picture resolution and appreciation of lines are afforded by models compared with actual boats at sea or in harbour).

Right: Gato class note deck furniture

Contrasting American and Britsh submarines of the period, the aerodynamics are positively futuristic. By way of comparison Ameria entered the war with the Gato class fleet submarine built from 1940 – 1944 (2,424 tons with a range of 11,000 nautical miles).

The scale model is ideal to illustrate the obstructions and drag-inducing paraphenalia on the on the deck and around the conning tower.

The benefit of streamlining had not been realised when theBalao class – the succeror to the Gato class – was inaugriated (1942 – 1946). Below is an unaltered pre-‘GUPPY’ replica of a Balao class (2,424 tons, range 11,000 nautical miles).

Left: Balao class, note deck detail

After the war and as a result of acquiring and appraising Type XXI U-boats, the US embarked upon the Greater Underwater Propulsion Power Program – an upgrade of its subamines fleet. Known by the acronym “GUPPY”, post- GUPPY boats were distinctly more aerodynamic.

Right: The Balao class USSGreenfish after GUPPY alterations

The huge transformation of the Balao class submarines is best conveyed by the example of USS Greenfish (SS-351). Pictured above is the wartime profile of a typical Balao class submarine and to the right a Balao class after its streamlined ‘makeover.’ The USSGreenfish was commissioned in 1946 in pre-GUPPY form and returned to the shipyards in 1948 for the first of its alterations.
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Below is a Table of all known Type XXI U-boats. Those U-boats numbers shown in black are known to have been completed, i.e. commissioned. Those with red numbers are U-boats ‘ordered’ and which may encompass those which were a). partially built, b) had only their keels laid or c). were simply paper orders, i.e. orders approving construction.





Left: U–2513

U-2513 was handed over to the American Navyin May 1945. It undertook no war patrols. First surrendered in Norway it then sailed to Lishally (Londonderry), Northern Ireland (7th June). In August 1945, the U-boat was transferred to the United States Navy. A year later, August 1946, U-2513 began an extensive overhaul at Charleston S.C. where she departed on 24th Sept. She then began six months of duty which included both evaluation tests of the U-boat’s design and duty in conjunction with the development of submarine and antisubmarine tactics. The Greater Underwater Propulsion Power Program (GUPPY) would be initiated because of the results of these tests. Pres. Truman was the only US President to set foot on and experience a dive in a U-boat (U-2513).

G.U.P.P.Y.

Post-war modernisation of US submarines under the Greater Underwater Propulsion Power Program proceeded in seven stages: GUPPY I was to reduce hydrodynamic drag; GUPPY II, was to fit the recently perfected snorkel, GUPPY IA was a cheaper alternative to the GUPPY II; Fleet Snorkel again related to the snorkel; GUPPY IIA was similar to GUPPY IA. These were then followed by GUPPY IB, and GUPPY III – and in the rather odd order shown here.



HTP power

The promise of an alternative propulsion system free of any reliance on the need oxygen was very appealing. There is no doubt that the Americans and British were determined to exploit this possible Holy Grail for themselves while denying the latest German submarine technology to the Russians. For their part the Russians had a correspondingly selfish attitude to the ‘spoils of war.’

In practical terms the Russians had captured a considerable number of unfinished Type XXI U-Boats in the shipyards in Danzig, and had as a result gained access to the plans for, and a full-scale model of a Type XXVI U-Boat (U-4501 through to U-4600). These variants would have been a larger and longer range version of the Type XVIIB U-Boat shown below.

Both the Type XXVI and the Type XVIIB were to be fitted with the HTP, or high test peroxide, power plant. In 1944 it was not fully appreciated just how dangerous this system could be in a confined space – a realisation that came only after hostilities ended and testing began.

Derivatives of hydrogen peroxide power are not limited to submarines as the earlier reference to the Me 163 Komet indicates. One form, HTP or high-test peroxide, is a high (85% to 98%) concentration solution of hydrogen peroxide, with the remainder predominantly made up of water. In contact with a catalyst, it ‘decomposes’ into a high-temperature mixture of steam and oxygen, with no remaining liquid water.

Although extremely combustible it is still used today as a propellant for rockets and torpedoes, and has more publicly seen in Vernier engines, i.e. the thrusters used for spacecraft to adjust their position.

However, in 1945 the emphasis was on submarines. Germany’s northern ports fell under the British occupying force jurisdiction and a variety of U-boats were discovered – the Type receiving the highest priorities were the Walter powered boats, e.g. Type XVIIA and Type XVIIB.

Left: a Type XVIIA underway

The Type XVIIA came as two variants’, one the Wa 201 was 128 ft long, and the second (Wk 202) was 120 ft long (the types were later followed by the Type XVIIB).

• U-792 was a Wa 201 variant, launched on 28 Sept 1943 and commissioned on 16 Nov 1943. She was 128 ft long, and displaced 309 tons. She was wrecked, 3 May 1945 and later broken up
• U-793 was also a Wa 201 variant; launched on 4 March 1944 and commissioned on 24 Apr 1944.
• U-794 was a Wk 202 variant of 120 ft long, displacing 259 tons, she was launched on 7 Oct 1943 and commissioned on 14 Nov 1943.
• U-795 was a Wk 202 variant, 128 ft long, launched on 21 March 1944 and commissioned on 22 Apr 1944.

Other Elektroboots

Three intactType XVIIBU-Boats (U-1405 to U-1407) fell within the British Sector after May 1945 with 2 or 3 more, U-1408 to U-1410 partially finished. These U-boats displaced 337 tons, were 136 ft in length 136 ft and, powered by the fabled HTP [high test peroxide] system had the astonishuing submerged speed of 25 knot.



Anglo–American plans suffered a setback when U-1405 to U-1407 were scuttled by their crews following the German collapse at the end of the Second World War.

Right: U-boat, U-1406, a Type XVIIB allocated to the US being dismantled after World War II

All three were raised and salvaged in June 1945. U-1407,which was allocated to Britain, was repaired d and together with its inventor Prof. Hellmuth Walter, transported to Vickers in Barrow-in-Furness for further assessment and refit. There Vickers under the supervision of Prof Walter, fitted her with a new and complete set of machinery (also captured in Germany). She was first known asHMS N41 but was later re-commissioned into the Royal Navy asHMS Meteorite.

U-1405 (pictured above) was raised, and transported to theUSand then broken up sometime after 18 May 1948.

The fate of U-1406 is not known with certainty to the author but U-1407 was transported to Britain and served as HMS Meteorite until 1949

Of the remainder, U-1408 to U-1410 were incomplete when the war ended and the contract for U-1411 to U-1416 was cancelled before construction began

No good representational pictures are freely available of the Type XVIIB save for the one above chosen for its depiction of the complete hull.

Other Developments

Germany also experimented with deadening the echo reply of ASDIC used by Allied warships. Some sources have disparaged these attempts at coating the entire hull in rubber sheeting as ineffective but recent evidence, circa 2004, [2] indicates it was in part so effective that the methodology has been adopted by other sea powers since 1945. A television programme regarding the wreck of the U-480 underscored she might have had some success due to this cloaking device prior to her sinking, not off the Isles of Scilly (south west England), as originally thought, but deep in the English Channel later in 1945.

The rubber sheeting is in fact a series of tiles glued to the specially prepared hull of a submarine. Termed Anechoic Tiles each tile has a series of perforations matching the signature – in the case of U-boats – the wartime frequencies used by ASDIC. The anechoic tiles both absorb the sound waves of ‘active sonar’ (pinging) and lessen any sounds made by the vessel, e.g. its engines. The latter reduces the range at which it can be detected by passive sonar.

Experimenting with rubber coatings first began with U-11 in 1940 followed by U-67 in 1941. The 4-millimetre thick rubber coatings were variously applied to the entire hull, the conning tower but not the deck and permutations thereof. Two notable problems were that the coating could become detached creating sonar attractiveturbulence in the water and secondly it was found to have decreased the speed of the boat.

It was not until late 1944 that the problems with the tile adhesive were mostly resolved – a process that took several thousand hours of hull cleansing, gluing and riveting on the U-boat. The first U-boat to test the newer type adhesives was U-480, a 757 tons Type VIIC U-boat.

Other U-boats that received the same rubber tiles included:

U-485, U-486 (a Type VIIC), U-1105 (a modified Type VII-C/41), U-1106, U-1107, U-1304, U-1306, U-1308 (the last Type VII/41 built) and three small Type XXIII ‘elecktroboots’; U-4704, U-4708 and U-4709.

After the war the technology was not utilised again until the 1970s when the Soviet Union ressurected the technique for its slightly noisy subs. Modern Russian tiles are about 100 m/m thick, and apparently reduced the acoustic signature of Akula class submarines by between 10 and 20 decibels, (i.e. 10% to 1% of its original strength).

By 1980 both the US and Britain were applying anechoic tiles to their submarines perhaps indicating that the gains outweighed the drawbacks of weight, cost and any increased ‘drag’.

Research Programme in the 1950s

The recovery of U-1407 was the impetus for a British research programme which resulted in the construction of two experimental submarines, HMS Explorer and HMS Excalibur (ordered in 1947 and completed in 1954 and 1958). She displaced 1,000 tons submerged and was 178 ft in length. They were built for speed trials and both were unarmed. The HTP engines were essentially steam turbines, with the steam being generated by the interaction of HTP with diesel oil and a catalyst.

Both boats suffered from many teething troubles to the extent that her first captain never took her to sea and the duo were comically referred to as “HMS Exploder” and “HMS Excruciator” (both were decommissioned in the 1960s). [3]

Historically, HTP is significant, if not a milestone, as the first attempt at AIP (Air Independent Propulsion). AIP is a generic tem for closed loop engines. It is a term that encompasses technologies such as oxygen substitution or Stirling Engine, which allows a submarine to operate without the need to surface, use a snorkel, or access atmospheric oxygen. Coincidentally, these technologies also significantly reduce the noise level of the submarine and thus their rate of detection.

The Soviet Union built a single, semi-successful example of a Walter-cycle submarine known in the West as “the Whale,” but their most serious efforts were focused on a closed-cycle diesel plant based on the German Kreislauf system. Together with their own pre-war researches this eventually led to the 650 ton (540 ton ?) SovietQuebecclass of 1956.

Left: Soviet Quebecclass, length 183 ft

This class of submarine used ‘stored liquid oxygen’ (LOX) to sustain the closed-cycle operation for diesel engines. An experimental prototype submarine, the M-401, was launched in May 1941 but the conflict with Germany (June 1941) suspended the programme. The exhaust gases from the diesel engine were compressed and the carbon dioxide extracted and dumped overboard, before the purified gases were mixed with stored oxygen and fed back into the engine (closed loop). The M-401 made 74 cruises in the Caspian Sea including 68 dives and covered 360 nautical miles, so in that regard it was successful.

This led to 30 boats based on this system being built between 1953 and 1957. However, their safety record was so very poor that they were known by their crews as “the cigarette lighters” and withdrawn from service by the early 1970s.

Submarines fitted with nuclear reactors sounded the death knell for HTP power. When the US Navy began building nuclear powered submarines nations using the HTP technology abandoned their projects. In Britain the HTP project was abandoned, and Explorerand Excalibur were scrapped

The Dream Lives On

Despite the advent of nuclear power as the preferred propulsion system for submarines there remains a niche market for AIP (Air Independent Propulsion). Diesel-electric powered submarines need some device if they are to evade detection by searching anti-submarine vessels using electronics for ASW (anti-submarine warfare).

Everyone is familiar with films depicting the ‘ping, ping’ of a surface vessel using ‘active’ SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging), to seek out a submarine. This depends on emitting a stream of pulse and waiting for the sounds to be reflected back to the search vessel.​

The second form of SONAR is passive sonar which emits no signal but listens for the sound made by vessels, e.g. its engines vibrations or propeller noise.

Both forms of sonar are used as ‘acoustic location’ devices and to measure the echo characteristics of “targets” in the water, e.g. speed, depth, range etc.

The acoustic frequencies used in sonar systems vary from very low (infrasonic) to extremely high (ultrasonic).

Contrary to popular perceptions of the ‘silent deep’, the ocean is, for acoustically sensitive equipment, a very ‘noisy’ environment. In addition to background noise, water has differing densities depending on depth and global geography. Submarines can ‘hide’ in this denser water. A heavier-than-water submarine could hide even more easily (all submarines are currently lighter-than-water).

‘Acoustic countermeasures’ available to a submarine can include sound-absorbing materials to cloak or nullify surfaces thatmight ‘reflect’ when underwater. This was first seen in U-boats of World War II and then Russian Juliett class and Kilo class (see Chinese subs URL ?).

‘Electronic countermeasures’ available to a submarine includenoisemakers to disrupt/confuse the pursuer.

For this assortment of countermeasure to be successful, however, the conventionally powered diesel-electric boat has to remain submerged. In spite of advances in battery life AIP systems are still required. They are capable of propelling a craft along at 5 knots while running almost silently and using up little or no oxygen.

From earlier articles on this blog site it will be apparent that‘cavitation’ and the give-away noise it produces has presented all Navies with a problem. One way around thathas been sophisticated propeller designs but another is to abandon the propeller altogether.

“Quiet Electric Motors” as used in modern submarines are not super-suppressed normal AC motors complete with brushes and armatures that are noise dampened – in fact they QEM has no moving parts at all. Alternately termed Integrated Motor Propulsion (IMP) and Magneto-Hydrodynamic Drive (MHD).

The ‘magnetohydrodynamic drive’ is more often associated with a form of submarine propulsion utilising a Kort nozzle or a Pump-jet. It works on the basis of an electric current being passed through seawater in the presence of an intense magnetic field. This interacts with the magnetic field of the current through the water. The effect is for the seawater to repel pushing the water out towards the stern thus accelerating the vehicle in the opposite, i.e. forward, direction.

MHD is attractive because it has no moving parts, which means that a good design will render the submarine ‘silent’ – and reliable, efficient, and inexpensive (especially so if it also creates drinking water and oxygen as by-products). [4]

Magnetohydrodynamic drive is analogous to the impulse drivewhich featured in the TV science fiction series Star Trek (the ‘impulse engines’ giving sub-light speeds).

Integrated Motor Propulsor (IMP) is similar to MHD but appears to be more readily found as the motor for torpedoes. The IMP is described as a ‘hybrid propulsion system’ which incorporates a radial-field electric motor (as does the MHD) but directly into the torpedo propeller jet. It is claimed this completely eliminates an internal motor which would normally require seals to prevent the ingress of water and torpedo failure. [5]

Bolting the drive unit onto the back of the torpedo body and replacing the normal propeller is said to increase its ‘stealth’ potential. The closed-cycle propulsion is said to be quiet, wakeless, and depth-independent.

In a cost conscious time, with its rechargeable energy source, it will help reduce naval exercise expenses by providing more affordable training opportunities because of its lower ‘total ownership costs.’

Ten years ago (202) Germany launched a Type 212A submarine and soon after launched a second for the German Navy (2003). [6]
U 31 and U 32 are Type 212A submarines, displacing 1,830 tons and are 183 ft long. Both are powered by a single diesel engine and an electric motor driven by two ‘fuel cells.’ Hull surface are covered in a special, non-reflective paint that absorbs ultrasounds coming from the sonars of other submarines. Type 212 features a cavitation-free propeller and have a submerged speed of 20 kts. [7]U 32 was the first non-nuclear submarine to stay submerged for two weeks.

Sweden’s Gotland class submarine (1,500 tons) was the first AIP submarine to enter regular service in 1996 with a speed of 20 kts when submerged. It features a “X” rudder said to give it greater manoeuvrability especially when close to the sea bead. (see S1000 China page). “Several weeks” is the underwater endurance claim for the Gotland class.

“Fuel Cells” are another form of AIP. In simple terms, a fuel cell is an electro-chemical conversion device that combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce water, electricity, and heat. The fuel cells on the U 32 are placed on the outside of the hull and are designed so thatin case of a disaster they explode on the outside thus minimising the risks for the crew.

Decades ago the principle of electricity and water was used for welding high melting point metals like platinum. An electric current was used to separate hydrogen and oxygen and the resulting gases used to fuse the metal. Fuelk cells are not that dissimilar.

Fuel cells are already seeing a number of promising applications in the space and automotive industries – many believe thatfuel cells offer the best potential for developing more efficient AIP systems in the future.

There are several alternative configurations for fuel cells, but the system that has attracted the most attention for submarine propulsion, is the “Polymer Electrolyte Membrane” (PEM) fuel cell. It has a low operating temperatures (80° Centigrade) with relatively little waste heat.

• • In a PEM device, pressurized hydrogen gas (H2) enters the cell on the anode side, where a platinum catalyst decomposes each pair of molecules into four H+ ions and four free electrons.
  • The electrons depart the anode into the external circuit – the load – as an electric current.
  • Meanwhile, on the cathode side, each oxygen molecule (O2) is catalytically dissociated into separateatoms, using the electrons flowing back from the external circuit to complete their outer electron “shells.”
  • The polymer membrane thatseparates anode and cathode is impervious to electrons, but allows the positively-charged H+ ions to migrate through the cell toward the negatively charged cathode, where they combine with the oxygen atoms to form water.

Left: Schematic diagram of the chemical reactions

Thus, the overall reaction can be represented as 2H2 + O2 => 2H2O, and a major advantage of the fuel-cell approach is that the only “exhaust” product is pure water. Since a single fuel cell generates only about 0.7 volts DC (direct current), groups of cells are “stacked” together in series to produce a larger and more useful output. The stacks can also be arrayed in parallel to increase the amount of current available.[8]

The greatest challenge for fuel-cell AIP systems lies in storing the reactants. Although oxygen can be handled with relative safety as LOX, storing hydrogen onboard as a liquid or high-pressure gas is very dangerous. One solution is to carry the hydrogen in metal hydride accumulators,atlow pressure and ambient sea temperature. (A metal hydride is a solid compound of hydrogen and metallic alloy.

Rockets and Missiles
Hydrogen peroxide – and its derivative fuel mixtures – met with more success when applied to aircraft and space. A good deal of sensational progress was made during the 1950s when the advantages of this technology were applied to aircraft, satellite launch rockets and missiles. For a brief timeBritainhas its own satellite and space exploration programme.

With Russia and the USA capturing or ‘attracting’ all the scientists after the war Britain developed its own rocket expertise based on kerosene / hydrogen peroxide engines. These rocket engines were very successful, inexpensive and very efficient – if not ingenious.

The exhaust from kerosene / peroxide burn-off is predominantly water. This results in a very clean exhaust (second only to cryogenic LO2/LH2) and a distinctive clear flame. The low molecular mass of water also helps to increase rocket thrust performance. Other characteristics of this approach yield “regenerating cooling” of the engine nozzles before combustion (reducing wear and failure rates). The result was a rocket motor without the usual major engineering problems and compromises.

The following table shows some of the British rockets designed and built in the 1950s.



Blue Streak, which promised so much, became the basis around which the European efforts into space exploration began. Beginning with the European Launcher Development Organisation (ELDO) in 1964; this then merged, in 1975, into the European Space Agency (ESA).

On the manned aircraft front, the Saunders-Roe SR.177 and Saunders-Roe 53 were contenders for large contracts requiring an all-weather supersonic interceptor. Jet engines were still in their infancy and ‘thrust levels’, compared with today, were very modest, e.g. Rolls Royce Avon 6.500 lb.

The experimental SR.177 and ST 53 had two distinct engines; a jet turbine and a separate rocket engine using a hydrogen peroxide / kerosene mixture and was much faster than any of its rivals (among them the English Electric Lightening), for the NATO contract.

Lockheed F-104 Starfighter coup was called the “Deal of the Century” and would later cause major political controversy in Europe. Germanyalone agreed to buy over nine hundred (916) F-104 aircraft. When F-104s started falling out of the sky investigations revealed that Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands (among others) confessed to taking bribes of more than US $1 million from Lockheed to buy the F-104. West German Minister of Defence Franz Josef Strauss was almost forced to resign over the issue for the same reasons. The deal was so profitable to Lockheed that they were happy to pay out millions of dollars as “sales incentives.”
The changes needed to make it suitable for European action rather than Colorado or Californian conditions had ‘unbalanced’ the plane and put heavier loadings on the stubby winglets and altered the ‘stall’ characteristics.

Of Germany’s 916 Starfighters (F-104), about 270 crashed, i.e. just under 30% of the total force; almost half were fatal (110 pilots were killed). Canada, which operated its F-104 in Northern Europe, had an even higher attrition rate, losing over 50% of its fleet of 200 single-seat F-104s.

Deadly Legacy
Used at sea and in the air – in both manned, e.g. Me Komet 163 and unmanned craft, e.g. the V2 - the methodology of using hydrogen peroxide (and its limitations) were well-known by the 1950s – but its adaptability ensured it was never forgotten or ruled out for many solutions.

From 1955, with the sinking of HMS Sidon, to the sinking of the Russian submarine the Kursk, Aug 2000, hydrogen peroxide, in one form or another, has been used as a propellant for high speed torpedoes.

Both boats appear to be victims of internal explosions caused by torpedoes powered by HTP. Fortunately, HMS Sidon was surfaced and tied up in dock when loading her torpedoes. [9] Nevertheless, her explosion and rapid sinking claimed 13 lives. Had she been at sea and/or submerged the death toll might has been as total as theKursk’s.

END

Addendum:

Britain’s latest submarince, HMS Astute, incorporates a hull covered with accoustic tiles. The original German version was made up of one metre square tiles perforated with with 2 m/m and 4 m/m holes (tile thickness unknown). Modern Russian tiles are about 100 mm thick (approx. 4 inches). HMS Churchill was the first UK submarine to be treated with acoustic tiles in 1980. One can deduce that most or all of the Royal Navy’s submarines have been similarly treated since then. It is thought that the most modern tiles utlise both oval and circular holes to extend their ‘cloaking’ and sonar defeating potential, however, other technical details are not available. The early German version had problems with regard varying sonar reflecting characteristics at different depths – so one asumes that is a ‘wrinkle’ that has now been cured.

Addendum :

Enigma machines – 3 of these German encoding machines were captured during World War 2. The first came from U-110 a captured Type IXB U-boat, by the Royal Navy in the North Atlantic near Ireland, in May 1941. The second cane fromU-559 (a Type VIIC U-boat) on 30 Oct 1942, engaged 70 miles north of the Nile Delta. Both U-boats surfaced briefly and sank shortly afterwards.

The third Enigma machine was captured from U-505, a Type IXC U-boat, by the United States Navy off the coast of Rio de Janeiro on June 4th 1944. On this occasion the U-boat was not successfully scuttled and she was taken in tow to the Bahamas. This Enigma machine had the latest variations and an extra layer of cipher protection.

However, all of the above were the Naval version as opposed to the Army version. The first Army version was captured by the Polish intelligence service in 1928. Although an early version, Polish intelligence had broken the Enigma code by 1932. It was brought to England in 1939 when Germany invaded Poland, and although it reportedly lacked some components, i.e. internal rotors, it formed the basis of the work for code-breaking at Bletchley Park until U-110′s capture.
Elektroboot submarines (1935 – 1955) | Robert Whiston's Weblog​

 

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The Evolution Of The Submarine As A Warship
The Evolution Of The Submarine As A Warship «

THE EVOLUTIONOFA SUBMARINE—ASA WARSHIP. At the close of the 19th century, the hail heard around the world wasBritannia Rules the Sea. Ships of the Royal Navy were high profile targets for their enemies—both foreign and domestic.

Douglas Porch, in his book The Path to Victory published in 2004, by Farrar, Straus, and Giroux in New York, revealed that Irish revolutionaries in 1876, known as the Fenian Brotherhood,contracted John P. Holland, an Irish-American who had immigrated to the US in 1872, to develop a way to sneak up on British ships from underwater, and sink them.

Holland’s work began in Paterson, New Jersey, on the Passaic River, and then moved to New York harbor. The Fenian’s, however, withdrew their support of Holland’s research when he failed to meet their timetables. Private investors though kept Holland afloat. By 1898, Holland had produced his sixth prototype—and, the US Navy was ready to buy. On April 11, 1900, the US Navy purchased Holland-VI for $150,000; and, for the record, the US Navy Submarine Force was born. Then, on October 13, 1900, USS HOLLAND (SS 1) duly was commissioned, Lieutenant H. H. Caldwell, US Navy, Commanding.



HOLLAND was 53.3 feet overall, with a maximum beam of 10.3 feet, a cruising draft of 8.5 feet, and a submerged displacement of 75 deadweight tons, dwt. HOLLAND was constructed with fitted steel-plate attached to angle-iron rib-frames that had been forged into perfect circles starting at 10.25 feet for the central one, and then decreasing to end-closures to form a parabolic, spindle-shaped hull. Safe test-depth was set at 80 feet to correspond to an external, water-head, crushing pressure of 35 psi, pounds-per-square-inch.

HOLLAND featured an ingenious dual-propulsion system. A 50-horsepower Otto (gasoline) engine was geared to drive a propulsion-screw– a propeller– directly, or by a friction clutch could be connected as a dynamotor for charging HOLLAND’selectric battery. This battery then could be switched to provide electrical energy to an electric motor that by friction clutch could be connected to the propulsion shaft.

HOLLAND’s maximum speed on the surface by gasoline-powered engine was rated at 7 knots; and, when topped-up with fuel,HOLLAND had an endurance-range of about 1500 nautical miles, nm, at her engine’s maximum continuous rating for making turns for 7 knots. When submerged, HOLLAND’s fully charged battery discharging at the six-hour rate had the ampere-hour capacity for electric motor propulsion at a rated maximum submerged speed of 5 knots for a submerged endurance-range of about 30 miles!

And, to go in harm’s way, HOLLAND had a single internally loaded 18-inch diameter tube that extended through the pressure hull in the bow for launching the new, improved Whitehead diving-torpedo Mark-III that was 11.65 feet in length, and rated at 30 knots for a run of 2000 yards. Moreover, HOLLAND was designed with space-and-weight accommodation for two torpedo reloads.Submarines were now stand-off warships.

Submarine Weapon Development. The British, however, lagged in early submarine development. The Admiralty apparently thought submarine attacks were dishonorable; and, declared that captured submariners would be treated as pirates, and be hanged, accordingly.

After Britain’s rivals at sea commissioned Holland to build submarines for them, the Admiralty changed its tune. As what could be expected, Holland later profited from selling submarines to that same Admiralty whose fleet he once had been paid to sink.

It is interesting to note that it was the US inventor Robert Fulton who in 1805, after studying the design of Bushnell’s Turtle, positively demonstrated in a weapon-trial the feasibility of sinking a ship by detonating an explosive charge against its underwater hull.

Some sixty years later in 1866, two years after the submarine CSS H. L. HUNLEY was lost detonating a torpedo attached to a bow-sprit spar that sank USS HOUSATONIC in Charleston harbor, Robert Whitehead, a Scottish inventor, demonstrated his advanced development model of an auto-mobile torpedo—to the Germans.

At the behest of officials representing the German Kaiser’s government in Austria, Whitehead demonstrated an unmanned, underwater vehicle that was a self-propelled, lighter-than-waterdirigible—a “diving submarine.” It essentially was an automated-mobile—an auto-mobile—underwater vehicle that could deliver a “numbing” explosive charge—a torpedo—to detonate against the underwater hull of a target-ship, and sink her—from a stand-off distance!

As the world turned into the 20th century, a booming Industrial Revolution seemingly elevated science and technology as if they were its King and Queen, their supreme overseer. It was like there had been a royal Coronation of Science & Technology.

Figuratively, a silver spoon was placed in the mouth of each new steamship born in modernized shipways. They indeed were capital-intensive assets. This was Big Time financing.

With the continuing evolution of submarines as reliable warships, torpedo advancements burgeoned to keep pace with them. For instance, by the onset of WW-I, US submarines had the new Bliss-Leavitt Mark-X torpedo, which weighed in at a hefty 1,628 pounds with a 326-pound warhead, stood 17.1 feet in length with an 18-inch diameter-girth, and ran 6,000 yards (3 nm) with a rated speed of 35 knots.

Now, enter the most efficient, the most cost-effective, the most peerless shipping interdictor, the most devastating business-loss inflictor, and most menacing national economic strangler of them all:

Der Kriegsmarine Unterseebooten!

The Enemy Below. During WW-I the word “U-boat” entered the world’s lexicon as a contraction of Unterseeboot, the German labeling of their new submarine warships. U-boat also entered the world’s consciousness as an offensive instrument of warfare that devastated commercial shipping.

Contrary to popular belief, the crews of Germany’s fetedUbootwaffe were not all volunteers. Once committed though, each German submarine-sailor soon came to understand that he must take pride in being a member of a unique undersea brotherhood. Thus, the sailors of this brotherhood– this Ubootwaffe– became bound together by an intense camaraderie, by ever-present dangers, and by a unity of purpose more powerful than any known to other sailors.

So, with over-extended capital investments, the British built new, capital-intensive, ocean-going steamships to bolster their colonized trade—strategic imports—from overseas. The strategic plan of the Germans—Britain’s “new” continental rival– was to interdict British capital-intensive, economic assets that sailed those seas, and do so with stealth and surprise from a hidden position just below the surface of the sea.

Germany set about to build and crew cost-effective U-boats whose individual tactical ship-sinking combats could be managed strategically to achieve their national goal of Economic Equalitywith their rival Great Britain. These U-boats were armed with a German version of an advanced Whitehead torpedo that very effectively—very cost-effectively– delivered an explosive charge to a target-ship at a stand-off distance that typically was less than half a mile even though the torpedo had a maximum run of three miles.

These U-boats featured a dynamo with an innovative design of an internal combustion engine that was not fueled with gasoline—and, did not require an ignition system. Thus, this “rational heat engine” was more efficient, and safer, than gasoline-fueled ones.







In 1897, after a major re-design of the lubrication system for this coal-dust fueled, single cylinder, four cycle pump-engine for flooded mineshafts, the first successful engineering development model of a liquid-fueled, “coal-oil,” engine was completed by its then-bankrupt inventor in collaboration with the Krupp firm and an Augsburg-Nuremberg machine shop, Maschinefabrik Augsberg Nürnburg– MAN.

Some fifteen years later, in 1912, a year before the death of the engine’s impoverished inventor, the US Navy procured a number of them from New London Ship and Engine Company, NELSECO,teamed with Vickers– a British shipbuilder licensed by this German conglomerate. These engines were the coal-oil fueled, four cycle version having four cylinders with a 12.75-inch bore and a 13.5 stroke that were rated 275 BHP @400 RPM. They were scheduled for installation in E-1 Class (ex-SKIPJACK) US-submarines to replace the scheduled gasoline-powered prime movers for the dynamos in their dual-propulsion hybrid system.[1]

In 1908, the German Navy favored the lighter (pounds-per-horsepower), two cycle version; but, in preparatory expediency for their inevitable war plans, they proceeded to fit all their U-boats with a six-cylinder, four cycle version of this now-feted engine as designed by its fatherly inventor whose name they bear– Rudolf Diesel, 1858-1913.

The rest of the story is legendary.

Diesel Boats Forever!

The Advent of Submarine Warfare
The Advent of Submarine Warfare «
The Advent of Submarine Warfare. The epoch for Submarine Warfare, for all intents and purposes, opened with the brusque plume of an exploding torpedo launched by a German U-boat sinking SS LUSITANIA, a British passenger liner, off the southwest coast of Ireland on May 7, 1915, leaving 1154 dead, including 114 Americans.[1]

Patently, the submarine evolved from a very awkward beginning into a very versatile, very stealthy, and very cost-effective warship. The following Benefit-to-Cost, B/C, analyses compare the costs of ships sank by warships to the costs of those warships lost in the effort. Statistically, this B/C portrays the efficacy of the submarine warship as a very cost-effective, ship-sinking interdictor of ocean sea-lanes.

In WW-I, German U-boats sank 5,708 merchant ships, and 62 warships.

To absorb the magnitude of those numbers, you may have to read them twice-over so as not to trivialize their significance—or, their economic significance. These sinking numbers equate to some 11,018,865 dead-weight tons (dwt) of steel in merchant-ship hulls plus their consigned cargo, and 538,535 dwt of warships. Figuratively, and literally, that’s a colossal “sunk cost.”

This sunk cost can be estimated parametrically to be $39.4-billion—at the time-value of money for 1918. Then, dividing that “Benefit” by the “Cost” of the lost of 178 U-boats estimated parametrically to be $1.3-billion, yields a B/C ratio of 30.5!

Notably, a B/C of 1.0 is breakeven, doubling your money is 2.0, and 4.0 is considered a beneficial venture.

There was a lot to be learned in the two intervening decades between WW-I and WW-II. Ardent studies of the technologies and techniques associated with Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) were lessons that had to be learned by the “Hunter,” and the “Hunted.”

Inevitably, as if portended by the foreboding Winds of War, German U-boats in WW-II sank 23.4-million dwt of allied shipping plus their cargo, which together is estimated to be $78.5-billion. Dividing that by the lost of 781 U-boats estimated to be $5.7-billion yields a B/C of 13.8.

In comparison to the greater B/C ratio in WW-I, one deduces thatASW in the Atlantic apparently helped to cut this telltale ratio by more than half. I doubt though that this lesser B/C was any solace to those having to stomach the lost of $78.5-billion– at the time-value of money for 1945.

Meanwhile, On the Far Side, how did US submarines fare in WW-II against the Eastern island empire of Japan in the Pacific?

US submarines sank 4.9-million dwt of Japanese warships, and merchant ships plus their cargo, which together is estimated to be $16.3-billion. Dividing that Benefit by the Cost of the lost of 52 US submarines materially estimated to be $355.3-million yields aB/C of 45.9![2]

At the beginning of 1943, as another statistical example, over the sea-lane between Taiwan and the Philippines at the Bashi Channelchoke-point for the Luzon Straits connecting the South China Sea with the Philippine Sea, Japanese oil-tankers were transporting some 1.5-million barrels of crude oil per month for Japan’s refineries to make distillate fuels for their war-machines. That sea-lane was interdicted by US submarines, literally torpedoing Japan’s oil-imports. By the end of 1944, this crude-oil supply had been reduced by 80 percent to something less than 300,000 barrels per month.

US submarines, with only 2% of all US Navy personnel, were credited with sinking 55% of all Japanese merchant ships, and 29% of all Japanese warships.

This era of submarine warfare, however, is still a “work-in-progress.” It began auspiciously on May 7, 1915, when a German U-boat torpedoed and sank SS LUSITANIA off the southwest coast of Ireland. For the moment, its log’s tab is set on May 21, 1982, when a British nuclear-powered attack submarine, HMS CONQUEROR, torpedoed and sank Argentina’s battle cruiserBELGRADO off the Argentine coast in the approaches to the Falkland Islands—a 150-year-old British colony that occupying Argentine armed forces two weeks later surrendered back to British armed forces on June 4, 1982.

The lead-in photo for this closing is a subtle depiction of the forebodingness of Submarine Warfare for several significant reasons. It could be said to be a chilling photo because it is of a submarine warship entering a German port.

In 1936, Chancellor Adolf Hitler officially opened the Kiel Canal, and relegated the inaugural passage to one of Der Kriegsmarine Unterseebooten. So, the Third Reich’s construction of the Kiel Canal may have been for other means to bolster Germany’s maritime economy.



Thus, HARDER’s transit of the Kiel Canal at the end of Kieler Wochecould be deemed to have been some surrealistic scheme to top-off the Kiel Canal’s twenty-fifth anniversary with a transit of a Type XXI U-boat. But perhaps, I just consider this photo to be significant because I am the young submarine officer pictured on deck with the Anchor Detail as HARDER stood in to Kiel that day. Nevertheless, it remains:

Submarines Sink Ships!

The Evolution of Submarine Design
The Evolution of Submarine Design
The following briefly summarizes the evolution of submarine design, from its beginning as a compressed air or human powered warship to today's nuclear power.
1578 - The first submarine design was drafted by William Bornebut never got past the drawing stage. Borne's submarine design was based on ballast tanks which could be filled to submerge and evacuated to surface - these same principles are in use by today's submarines.

1620 - Cornelis Drebbel, a Dutchman, conceived and built an oared submersible. Drebbels' submarine design was the first to address the problem of air replenishment while submerged.

Bushnell's Turtle

1776 - David Bushnell builds the one-man human poweredTurtle submarine. The Colonial Armyattempted to sink the British warship HMS Eagle with the Turtle, although unsuccessfully. The Turtle is the first submarine to dive, surface and be used in Naval combat. David Bushnell’s Turtle, the first American submarine. Built in 1775, its intended purpose was to break the British naval blockade of New York harbor during the American Revolution. With slight positive buoyancy, Turtle normally floated with approximately six inches of exposed surface. Turtle was powered by a hand-driven propeller. The operator would submerge under the target, and using a screw projecting from the top of Turtle, he would attach a clock-detonated explosive charge. This 1875 drawing by Lt. Francis Barber is the most familiar rendering of Turtle. However, it contains several errors, including internal ballast tanks and helical screw propellers.

1798 - Robert Fulton builds the submarineNautilus which incorporates two forms of power for propulsion - a sail while on the surface and a hand-cranked screw while submerged.

Right Photo: Holland VII

1895 - John P. Hollandintroduces the Holland VII and later the Holland VIII (1900). TheHolland VIII with its petroleum engine for surface propulsion and electric engine for submerged operations served as the blueprint adopted by all the world's navies for submarine design up to 1914.

1904 - The French submarine Aigetteis the first submarine built witha diesel engine for surface propulsion and electric engine for submerged operations. (Diesel fuel is less volatile than petroleum and is the preferred fuel for current and future conventionally powered submarine designs.)

1943 - The German U-boat U-264 is equipped with a snorkel mast. This mast which provides air to the diesel engine allows the submarine to operate the engine at a shallow depth and recharge the batteries.

1944 - The German U-791 uses Hydrogen Peroxide as an alternative fuel source.
USS Nautilus - the world's first nuclear powered submarine. Nuclear power enables submarines to become true "submersibles" - able to operate underwater for an indefinite period of time. The development of the Naval nuclear propulsion plant was the work of a team Navy, government and contractor engineers led by Captain Hyman G. Rickover.

Right Photo: USS Skipjack (SSN 585)

1958 - The U.S. introduces the USS Albacore with a "tear drop" hull design to reduce underwater resistance and allow greater submerged speed and maneuverability. The first submarine class to use this new hull design is the USS Skipjack.

Left Photo: USS George Washington (SSBN 598)

1959 - The USS George Washington is the world's first nuclear powered ballistic missile firing submarine.

 

[Penguin]

More V80 pics here Walter V80 - Modelbouwforum.nl

 

[500]

I made a little research in this matter and here the results:

Cornelius Drebbel submarine (1620), UK

Crew - 12 rowers + 3 passengers.

The first moving submarine, moved by 6 pairs of oars. It sailed in Thames river. Probably only semi submerged.

Turtle (1775) of David Bushnell, USA

Displacement - ~1 ton.
Length - 1.8 m
Crew - 1 man

The first submarine used in combat (although unsuccessfully). It also innovated many advanced features which are still used on modern subs: first propeller (although very primitive), first ballast tanks, first conning tower, first depth gauge, first armed submarine (a time bomb attached to target ships hull).

Nautilus (1800) of Robert Fulton, France

Displacement - 6 t
Length - 6.5 m
Crew - 3 men

The first submarine with hydrodynamic shape (the modern subs have very similar shape!), first dive planes, first separate propulsion systems for surface and underwater (folded sail and human powered), improved propeller. It tried to attack British frigate couple times but failed because of very low speed. Fulton's second submarine, which was very similar to first destroyed a small sloop during the 1801 tests for the first time in history.

H.L. Hunley (1863) of James McClintock, CSA

Displacement - 6.8 t
Length - 12 m
Crew - 8 men

The submarine itself was not innovative (human powered), but it carried the first sucessful submarine attack in 1864, sinking the USS Housatonic with spar torpedo. The submarine itself did not survive either. The next successful attack by a submarine happened only in 1914.

Plongeur (1863) of Simeon Bourgeois and Charles Brun, France

Displacement - 420 t
Length - 43 m
Crew - 12 men

The first mechanical powered submarine (compressed air engine). Because of very primitive weapons and very poor range it had no military value. There was also a Pyrhydrostat project (1854) of Antoine Payerne, France with steam engine, no evidence if was ever built.

Ictineo II (1864) of Narcis Monturiol, Spain

Displacement - 46 t
Length - 14 m
Crew - 20 men

The first submarine with steam engine, air independent steam engine for submerged. It made several test dives, but never actually sailed under water.

Holland-1 (1878) of John Philip Holland, USA

Displacement - 2.25 t
Length - 4.3 m
Crew - 1 man

The first submarine with gasoline engine (used on surface), human powered submerged. A midget experimental submarine.

Nordenfeldt-1 (1883) of George Garret, Sweden

Displacement - 60 t
Length - 19.5 m
Crew - 3 men

The first submarine armed with torpedo, although it was virtually unusable. Steam engine (for submerged it used accumulated steam). The submarine was sold to Greek navy, the second similar submarine was sold to Turkish navy, the third was tried to sell to Russian navy. All three Nordenfeldt submarines had very poor underwater performance and no military value.

 

[500]

Peacemaker (1883) of Josiah Tuck, USA
Elektrochod (1885) of Stefan Drzewiecki, Russia
Goubet-1 (1885) of Claude Goubet, France



Displacement - 20 t
Length - 9.1 m
Crew - 3 men

Displacement - 1.8 t
Length - 5 m
Crew - 2 men

Displacement - 11 t
Length - 5.8 m
Crew - 2 men

One of those was the first electrically driven submarine. There are conflicting reports (not sure if "Peacemaker" was built). So I post all three. Anyhow they all had very poor performance and no practical value at all.

Gymnote (1888) of Gustave Zede, France
Peral (1888) of Isaac Peral, Spain

Displacement - 30 t
Length - 17.8 m
Crew - 5 men

Displacement - 85 t
Length - 22 m
Crew - 7 men

These two all electric submarines were armed with torpedoes (although no evidence they ever fired them even during the tests), they are first subs with decent underwater capabilities and limited military value, except very poor range. Peral was rejected by Spanish navy, Gymnote served as test boat till 1907.

Baker's boat (1892) of George Baker, USA

Displacement - 20 t
Length - 14 m
Crew - 3 men

Its a first submarine using revolutionary concept: a thermal (steam) engine for surface, and electric battery for submerged operation, which can be also recharged in the sea. The same concept is used on diesel electric submarines till today. It's design with rotating propellers instead of dive planes was not successful though and it lost US navy competition to Holland.

Gustav Zede (1893) of Gustav Zede and Gaston Romazzotti, France

Displacement - 270 t
Length - 45 m
Crew - 19 men

It carried the first ever successful torpedo attack against both static and moving ship, while submerged (during the 1898 tests ). Its was all electric submarine and thus could not recharge batteries in the sea, but thanks to its large size (compare to previous submarines) it still could travel couple days and it can be named as the first submarine with real military value.

USS Holland/Holland-VI (1897) of of John Philip Holland, USA
Narval (1898) of Maxime Laubeuf

Displacement - 64/74 t
Length - 16.4 m
Crew - 6 men

Displacement - 117/202 t
Length - 34 m
Crew - 13 men

These two were the first modern submarines, which could travel at long distances on surface thanks to their thermal engine and recharge their batteries while in sea (first this concept was used on Baker's submarine). Their designs were also very successful and used on many succeeding submarines. Holland used gasoline engine which was less bulky than Narval's steam engine, but had explosion hazard. Both boats entered navy service in 1900.

Aigrette (1904), France

Displacement - 178/253 t
Length - 35.8 m
Crew - 12 men

The first diesel electric submarine. Derived from Narval submarine. Diesel engine was compact as gasoline and had no explosion hazard like steam engine.

 

[500]

U-21 boat/type U-19 (1913), Germany

Displacement - 650/837 t
Length - 64.2 m
Crew - 35 men

The first submarine to sink a ship by a torpedo (HMS Pathfinder) on 1914 September 5.

The first unsuccessful torpedo attack by a submarine happened on 9 December 1912, by French made Greek Delfin submarine (which was based on Narval design by the way).

U-27 boat/type U-27 (1913), Germany

Displacement - 675/867 t
Length - 64.7 m
Crew - 35 men

The first submarine to sink another submarine (HMS E3) on 1914 October 18. The German submarine was submerged during the attack and E3 was surfaced.

HMS Venturer/V type(1943), UK

Displacement - 658/740 t
Length - 62.3 m
Crew - 33 men

The only submarine to sink another submarine while they were both submerged when she sinks U-864 on 1945 February 6.

Type XXI (1945), Germany

Displacement - 1,621/1,819 t
Length - 76.7 m
Crew - 57 men

The first submarine designed to operate primarily submerged, rather than as surface ships that could submerge as a means to escape detection or launch an attack. It had about 2 times higher submerged speed (17.2 knots) and 4 times higher submerged range (340 nm at low speed) compare to other WW2 submarines, had sophisticated detection equipment for its time. It directly influenced all post WW2 submarine designs.

USS Nautilus (1955), USA

Displacement - 3,533/4,092 t
Length - 98 m
Crew - 105 men

USS Albacore (1953), USA
USS Barbel (1959), USA
USS Skipjack (1959), USA



Displacement - 1,240/1,540 t
Length - 62.1 m
Crew - 54 men

Displacement - 2,146/2,637 t
Length - 66.9 m
Crew - 79 men

Displacement - 3,075/3,513 t
Length - 77 m
Crew - 93 men

The first modern submarines with teardrop design. They were also first submarines to cross the 30 knot speed (except Barbel with 25 knots). The Albacore was unarmed experimental diesel electric, Barbel first serial diesel electric and Skipjack first serial nuclear.

There was also a midget 76 ton experimental German V-80 submarine built in 1940 with teardrop design and AIP engine, which achieved record 28 knot speed, but it was never commissioned.

 

[500]

USS George Washington (1959), USA

Displacement - 5,959/6,709 t
Length - 116.3 m
Crew - 112 men

The first SSBN and the first submarine to launch missiles from under the sea.

USS Tullibee (1960), USA

Displacement - 2,316/2,607 t
Length - 83 m
Crew - 67 men

The first designated hunter-killer submarine with very quiet machinery and very big bow mounted spherical sonar array (that's why amidships angled torpedo tubes were used instead of bow). This design is used on US submarines till today.

Project 670 Charlie I (1967), USSR

Displacement - 3,574/4,980 t
Length - 95.6 m
Crew - 77 men

The first submarines with underwater launched cruise missiles. Wold's first SSGN.

Project 669 Papa (1969), USSR

Displacement - 5,200/8,770 t
Length - 106.4 m
Crew - 75 men

The world fastest submarine - 44.7 knots. Only one was built.

Project 941 Typhoon (1981), USSR

Displacement - 23,200/48,000 t
Length - 170 m
Crew - 168 men

The world's largest submarine (SSBN).

Project 685 Mike (1983), USSR

Displacement - 5,568/8,500 t
Length - 118.4 m
Crew - 64 men

The worlds deepest diving submarine (1027 m). Only one was built.

Gotland (1996), Sweden

Displacement - 1,494/1,599 t
Length - 60.4 m
Crew - 33 men

World's first successful AIP submarines (Stirling engine). The first test Stirling AIP submarine was Swedish Nacken, converted in 1988. Later Stirling AIP was used by Japanese and Chinese.

- Germans introduced type 212, the world's first fuel cell AIP in 2005.
- Pakistani Hamza (French Agosta 90B class) commissioned in 2008 is the world first submarine with MESMA AIP.

There were also a German Type VIII submarines built in 1944 which used peroxide AIP turbines, but Germans used the AIP in wrong way: instead making low speed high endurance AIP, they made high speed low endurance AIP propulsion.

 

[The SC]

USS Nautilus: First Nuclear Submarine

Nationality & Construction:

• Nation: United States
• Type: Submarine
• Shipyard: General Dynamics Electric Boat Division
• Laid Down: June 14, 1952
• Launched: January 21, 1954
• Commissioned: September 30, 1954
• Fate: Museum ship at Groton, CT

General Characteristics:

• Displacement: 3,533 tons (surface); 4,092 tons (submerged)
• Length: 323 ft., 9 in.
• Beam: 27 ft., 8 in.
• Draft: 22 ft.
• Propulsion: Westinghouse S2W naval reactor
• Speed: 22 knots (surface), 20 knots (submerged)
• Complement: 13 officer, 92 men
• Armament: 6 torpedo tubes

Career:
In July 1951, after several years of experiments with marine applications for nuclear power, Congress authorized the US Navy to build a nuclear-powered submarine. Design and construction of the new vessel was personally overseen by the "Father of the Nuclear Navy," Admiral Hyman G. Rickover. Designated USS Nautilus on December 12, 1951, the ship's keel was laid at Electric Boat's shipyard at Groton, CT on June 14, 1952. On January 21, 1954, Nautilus was christened by First Lady Mamie Eisenhower and launched into the Thames River.

Commissioned on September 30, 1954, with Commander Eugene P. Wilkinson in command, Nautilus remained dockside for the remainder of the year conducting testing and completing fitting out. At 11:00 AM on January 17, 1955, Nautilus' dock lines were released and the vessel departed Groton. Putting to sea, Nautilus historically signaled "Underway on nuclear power." In May, the submarine headed south on sea trials. Sailing from New London to Puerto Rico, the transit was the longest ever by a submerged submarine and achieved the highest sustained submerged speed.

Over the next two years, Nautilus conducted various experiments involving submerged speeds and endurance, many of which showed the anti-submarine equipment of the day to be obsolete. After a cruise under the polar ice, the submarine participated in NATO exercises and visited various European ports. In April 1958, Nautilus sailed for the West Coast to prepare for a voyage to the North Pole. Departing Seattle on June 9, it was forced to abort the trip ten days later when deep draft ice was found in the shallow waters of the Bering Straight.

After sailing to Pearl Harbor to await better ice conditions, Nautilus returned to the Bering Sea on August 1. Submerging, the ship became the first vessel to reach the North Pole on August 3. Continuing on, Nautilus completed its transit of the Artic by surfacing in the Atlantic, northeast of Greenland, 96 hours later. Sailing to Portland, England, Nautilus was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation, becoming the first ship to receive the award in peace time. After returning home for an overhaul, the submarine joined the Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean in 1960.

Over the remainder of its career, Nautilus participated in a variety of exercises and testing, as well as saw regular deployments to the Mediterranean, West Indies, and the Atlantic. In 1979, the submarine sailed to Mare Island Navy Yard in California for inactivation procedures. On March 3, 1980, Nautilus was decommissioned. Two years later, in recognition of the submarine's unique place in history, it was designated a National Historic Landmark. With this status in place, Nautilus was converted to a museum ship and returned to Groton. It is now part of the US Sub Force Museum.

History of USS Nautilus Nuclear Submarine

 

[The SC]

Project 865 Piranya
Losos Class

Designed for special operations and to engage surface ships located offshore, the Piranya is toughly built and is almost completely silent. The hull is comprised of a titanium alloy, that reduces the effectiveness of enemy mines. Divers can be deployed on sabotage missions. The divers remain in contact with the submarine, which is capable of supplying them with oxygen for breathing, electricity, warmth, and monitors to ensure that underwater instruments are operating normally. The Piranya’s 1200 kW lead-acid batteries allows the submarine to remain underway for ten days and the submarines at sea replenishement capabilities allows the submarine within 8 hours to receive enough food, fuel and lubricants, and air for an additional ten days.
The design was apparently not considered particularly successful. The two units were placed in reserve in 1993, briefly reactivated in 1995, and again laid up by 1997, and are expected to be discarded.

In 1991 the St. Petersburg-based Special Boiler Design Bureau (SKBK) completed development of the Kristall-20 AIP system for the Piranha. The AIP underwent comprehensive testing and was accepted by the customer - the Ministry of Defense. However, AIP systems were never installed in submarines due to reductions in defense spending.

Specifications

Designation:


865

Designer

Builder

Displacement (tons):

218 surfaced
390 submerged
Speed (kts):


6.65 knots dived
6.43 knots surfaced

Dimension (meters):


28.2 meters long
4.8 meters beam
5.1 meters draft

Propulsion:


2 diesel – 160 (kW)
propulsion motor – 60 (kW)

Propulsion:


1 propeller

Endurance:


10 days

Diving Depth:


200 meters

Crew:


9

Armament:


2 mine laying devices for 2 mines or
2 torpedoes

Electronics


· Active/passive radar
· Active/passive sonar

1 periscope

Losos Class - Project 865

 

[500]

German post WW2 submarines.

Type 201 (62-63) - First German post WW2 subs. They had chisel shaped nose and teardrop middle and rear, two decks, 8 torpedo tubes in 3 rows on first deck. This design remained in most of German submarines till today (Type 205, Type 206, Type 209, Type 210 and Type 214).
Were built of non-magnetic steel, which had corrosion problems. As result only 3 subs were built and they were scrapped after only 1 year, their components were cannibalized for Type 205 submarines.

Type 205 shows its distinguish 'chisel nose' shape.

Type 205 (67-70) - Very similar to Type 201 with regular steel instead of problematic non-magnetic. Armament - 8 torpedo tubes with no spare torpedoes for reload. Submarines were quiet and agile, but because of their small size had poor range, depth and speed.

11 submarines were built for German Navy and 2 for Danish. The last one went out of service only in 2005.

Type 207 Kobben (65-67) - Subclass of Type 205 submarine for Norway. Slightly increased in size, with bigger depth (170 m instead of 100 m). 15 were built. 2 still serve in Polish navy.

Type 206 (73-75) - Based on Type 205 with non-magnetic steel (issues were solved). Increased size and depth (200 m). Improved stealth. More powerful sonar. Excellent subs for shallow and confined water operations like Baltic sea. 18 were built. In early 90-es 12 were modernized to Type 206A level (modern equipment) and served in German navy till 2011.

Type 540 Gal (76-77) - The subclass of Type 206 for Israel. Slightly increased size. Has 2 spare torpedoes for reloading. In 1983 they were armed with Sub Harpoons. 3 were built, last one decommissioned in 2002.

Type 209 (71-08) - Submarines for export, based on Type 205 but with more than 2 times increased displacement. It allowed drastically increase range (surface over 2 times and underwater by a third) and underwater speed by 5 knots, optimized for deep seas and oceans. Number of torpedo tubes remained the same - 8 but were added 6 torpedoes for reloading (total 14).

From 1971 to 2008 were built 61 submarines of 5 classes and 17 subclasses for 13 countries. With each new variant they got new upgrades. Their displacement also grew by 30-50%, further increasing range, endurance and depth. From 209/1400 Thomson (84) built for Chile they got new superstructure which improved their seakeeping and hydrodynamic capabilities also gave them more modern look.

Difference between pre 1984 and post 1984 type 209 submarines.

TR-1700 (84-85) - much larger displacement (largest German built submarines), new 3 deck design with 6 torpedo tubes on middle deck. But Type 209 hull shape remained. Thanks to the large displacement their range increased by 25%, speed from 22 knots to 25 knots and depth to 300 m. 2 were built for Argentine. Still in service.

Type 209 and TR-1700 submarines together. You can see the difference between 2 deck 8 torpedo tubes layout (used on Type 201,205,206,209,210,214) and 3 deck 6 torpedo tube layout (used on TR-1700, Dolphin, 212).

Type 210 Ula (89-92) - based on 209, heavily modified for coastal shallow water operations. Slightly smaller than 209/1100 thanks to automation crew reduced from 31 to 21. 6 were built for Norway.

Dolphin (99-00) - a 212 variant without AIP. 3 deck design similar to TR-1700. In addition to 6 533-mm torpedo tubes were added 4 650-mm. It's the first German built submarine with full teardrop hull and X shaped stern planes for improved maneuverability. Well suited for both shallow and deep waters. 3 were built for Israel.

Type 212A (05-..) - compare to Dolphin it got fuel cell AIP and dive planes were moved to the sail. The pressure hull is narrowed in the rear, which allowed to insert oxygen and hydrogen tanks between the pressure and light hulls without breaking the teardrop shape.

You can see the oxygen (big ones on top) and hydrogen (small ones around) tanks between the pressure and light hulls of 212 submarine.

Type 214 (07-..) - based on type 209 with fuel cell AIP and other 212 technologies. In contrast to 212 the pressure hull is not narrowed in rear, so oxygen tank for AIP is located inside the pressure hull, while hydrogen tanks are located in special structure under the hull.

You can see the underhull structures for hydrogen tanks on 214 and Dolphin II submarines.

Dolphin II (14-..) - enlarged Dolphin with AIP. The AIP scheme is similar to 214. Nearly 500 tons heavier than 212 and 214 making it one of the largest German built subs in pair with the TR-1700.

 

[Kyusuibu Honbu]

 

[500]

Soviet/Russian SSK:

Project 613 Whiskey (51-58) - Medium size, two shaft, two deck. Based on WW2 German XII and XXI submarines. Underwater speed of only 13 knots (surface 18), primitive but reliable and relatively quiet. 215 submarines were built in USSR additional 21 were built in China. The most produced post WW2 submarine.

1050/1350 t
18.2/13.1 knots
170 m depth
6 torpedo launchers (12 torpedoes)

Project 611 Zulu (53-58) - Large submarine 3 shaft, 3 deck. Based on WW2 German XXI. Speed 17/15 knots. Not very successful, had strong vibrations, that's why "only" 26 were built.

1831/2300 t
17/16 knots
200 m depth
10 torpedo launchers (22 torpedoes)

Project 633 Romeo (59-61) - Improved and enlarged 613. 20 submarines were built in USSR (relatively low number since USSR decided to invest in large Project 641 submarines), another 83 were built and China and 15 in North Korea.

1328/1712 t
15.3/13.2 knots
270 m depth
8 torpedo launchers (14 torpedoes)

Project 641 Foxtrot (58-83) - New design based on 611. After 1971 was built only for export. Total 75 were built (58 for USSR + 17 for export).

1952/2550 t
16.8/16 knots
240 m depth
10 torpedo launchers (22 torpedoes)

Project 641B Tango (72-82) - Much improved and enlarged project 641. Improved hydrodynamic shape, although the archaic 3 shaft drive remained. For the first time for Soviet diesel subs the underwater speed was higher than underwater, although still low - 16 knots. Large and quite powerful MGK-400 sonar (same sonar was used on Kilo and some nuclear subs). 18 built.

2750/3900 t
14.7/15 knots
240 m depth
6 torpedo launchers (24 torpedoes)

Project 877 Kilo (80-00) - New teardrop single shaft design. Still relatively low speed. 44 were built.

2300/3040 t
10/17 knots
240 m depth
6 torpedo launchers (18 torpedoes)

Project 636 Improved Kilo (97-..) - Improved Kilo, its exterior is virtually the same except 1.2 m enlarged length. Much quieter, higher speed, improved equipment. Still being produced.

2350/3100 t
11/20 knots
240 m depth
6 torpedo launchers (18 torpedoes)

Project 677 Lada (10-..) - New smaller design. Single hull (all previous Soviet/Russian submarines had double hull). The only built submarine did not meed the navy requirements.

1765/- t
10/21 knots
250 m depth
6 torpedo launchers (18 torpedoes)

 

[500]

Soviet/Russian SSN:

627 "Кит" November (58-64) - 13 units. First Soviet nuclear submarine. 2 VM-A reactors, two shafts. MG-200 "Arktika-M" sonar. As first US nuclear submarines were noisy. Had reliability issues till middle of 1960-es. One more submarine was built with liquid metal cooler reactor (project 645), but was scrapped after accident.

3,065/4,750 t
15/28 knots
250 m depth
8 533-mm torpedo launchers (20 torpedoes)

671 "Ерш" Victor I (67-74) - 17 units. First Soviet submarine with teardrop design, one shaft. 2 OK-300 reactors, much larger and powerful MGK-300 "Rubin" sonar. Much noisier than their US counterparts and much less powerful sonar, but slightly faster.

4,250/6,085 t
11.5/33.5 knots
320 m depth
6 533-mm torpedo launchers (18 torpedoes)

671РТ "Семга" Victor II (72-78) - 7 units. Victor I modernization. Reduced noise. "Accord" battle management system. 2 650-mm torpedo launchers instead of 2 533-mm were added. Their large long range torpedoes were designed vs. surface ships only.

4,673/7,190 t
11.7/31.7 knots
320 m depth
4 533-mm torpedo launchers (18 torpedoes) + 2 650-mm (6 torpedoes)

671РТМ "Щука" Victor III (77-92) - 26 units. The most produced Soviet SSN. Further modernization of Victor class. Reduced noise, new much more powerful MGK-500 "Skat" sonar and "Omnibus" battle management system. In terms of its quality close to 3rd generation. It was still slightly noisier than its counterpart "Los Angeles" and had less powerful sonar, but was more fast, agile and had smaller crew.

4,780/7,250 t
10/31 knots
320 m depth
4 533-mm torpedo launchers (18 torpedoes) + 2 650-mm (6 torpedoes)

705(К) "Лира" Alfa (71, 77-81) - 7 units. Relatively small, super fast (fastest serial submarine) and super agile submarines. They had liquid metal cooler reactor (only serial subs with such type of reactor) and titanium hull. Overall they were not successful. Noisy, unreliable and hard to operate because of very small crew.

2,310/3,120 t
14/41 knots
320 m depth
6 533-mm torpedo launchers (18 torpedoes)

686 "Плавник" Mike (83) - 1 unit. Experimental deep diving submarine. Based on project 945 design. Reached world record 1027 m depth. Titanium hull. New OK-650B-3 reactor. MGK-500 "Skat" sonar.

5,680/8,500 t
14/30.6 knots
1000 m depth
6 533-mm torpedo launchers (22 torpedoes)

945 "Барракуда" Sierra I (84-87) - 2 units.OK-650A reactor. MGK-503 "Skat-KS" sonar. 3rd generation SSN with titanium hull. Quiet as "Los Angeles", faster and deeper diving. Extremely expensive due to titanium hull.

6,300/9,100 t
12.2/35 knots
480 m depth
4 533-mm torpedo launchers (28 torpedoes) + 2 650-mm (12 torpedoes)

945А "Кондор" Sierra II (92-93) - 2 units. Improved project 945. OK-650B reactor, MGK-503 "Skat-KS" sonar.

6,470/10,400 t
12.2/35 knots
520 m depth
6 533-mm torpedo launchers (40 torpedoes)

971 "Щука-Б" Akula (84-01) - 14 units. Based on project 945 but with cheaper steel hull instead of titanium. OK-650A/B reactor, MGK-503 "Skat-KS", MGK-540 "Skat-3". Last 6 submarines (entered service since 1992) are improved slightly larger and quieter.

8,140/10,500 t
11.6/33 knots
400 m depth
4 533-mm torpedo launchers (28 torpedoes) + 4 650-mm (12 torpedoes)

885 "Ясень" Yasen (14-..) - 1 unit in service 3 more being built, 8 planned. 4th generation submarine, designated to replace both SSN and SSGN. Larger spherical sonar "Irtysh-Amfora" in the bow (torpedo launchers are moved to the center). 32 vertically launched cruise missiles (Klub and Oniks). Reactor OK-650V.

8,600/13,800 t
-/31 knots
520 m depth
10 533-mm torpedo launchers, 4x8 VLS tubes

 

[500]

US SSN:

Nautilus (55) - 1 unit. First nuclear submarine in the world. Its design was very similar to diesel electric submarines of its time but larger in size. Two shafts, noisy. In 1956 entered in service Seawolf submarine, similar to Nautilus but with liquid metal cooled reactor. It proved to be unreliable and converted to water reactor in 1960.

3,180/3,500 t
22/23.3 knots
213 m depth
6 533-mm torpedo tubes (26 torpedoes)

Skate (57-58) - 4 units. First serial nuclear submarines in the world. Similar to Nautilus but smaller and cheaper.

2,550/2,848 t
15.5/18 knots
213 m depth
8 533-mm torpedo tubes (22 torpedoes)

Skipjack (57-61) - 6 units. First teardrop shape single shaft nuclear submarine, sail dive plane. New powerful reactor S5W (same type of reactor was used on Tresher and Sturgeon submarines). Very fast and agile but noisy submarine. Depth also remained low.

3,075/3,513 t
15/31 knots
215 m depth
6 533-mm torpedo tubes (24 torpedoes)

Tullibee (60) - 1 unit. First designated hunter-killer submarine with very quiet machinery and big bow mounted spherical sonar array AN/BQQ-1 (that's why amidships angled torpedo tubes were used instead of bow). This design is used on US submarines till today. But because of the small size it had low speed and depth. Used turbo-electric transmission.

2,177/2,607 t
13/16 knots
215 m depth
4 533-mm torpedo tubes (12 torpedoes)

Tresher/Permit (61-68) - 14 units. These submarines combined high speed of Skipjack with quiet machinery and powerful sonar like Tullibee (AN/BQQ-2). The depth was also increased. As result submarines became much larger and more expensive. In order to reduce water resistance and make the sail smaller SIGINT equipment was removed.

3,750/4,310 t
15/28 knots
213 m depth
4 533-mm torpedo tubes (23 torpedoes)

Sturgeon (66-75) - 37 units. Modification of Tresher/Permit class. Reduced noise. Optimized for Arctic operations. The SIGINT equipment was returned so the sail increased in size. During the modernization they were equipped with AN/BQQ-5 sonar from Los Angeles class.

Sturgeon class included two unique subclass submarines:

- SSN 671 Narwhal (69) with S5G natural circulation reactor (this design was used later on Ohio class) and sophisticated multi-stage turbine instead of reduction gears (this was not successful).
- SSN 685 Glenard P. Lipscomb (74) with turbo-electric transmission.

4,250/4,780 t
15/26 knots
400 m depth
4 533-mm torpedo tubes (23 torpedoes)

Los Angeles (76-96) - 62 units. 3rd generation submarine. Single hull design (previous submarines had mixed single-double hull design), new much more powerful reactor S6G, reduced noise. New much more powerful sonar with digital signal process (AN/BQQ-5). It is the most produced SSN in the world. Was built in 3 batches: base Los Angeles - 31 units (76-85), Los Angeles with VLS for 12 Tomahawk missiles - 8 units (85-89), Imrpoved Los Angeles - 23 units (88-96) with much quieter machinery and new battle management system.

6,210/6,927 t
32 knots
300 m depth
4 533-mm torpedo tubes (26 torpedoes) + 12 VLS for Tomahawk missiles

Seawolf (97-05) - 3 units. 4th generation submarine. S6W natural circulation reactor, pump jet propulsion. Increased depth. Has quiet tactical speed of 20 knots. Very expensive.

7,460/9,137 t
33+ knots
490 m depth
8 660-mm torpedo tubes (50 torpedoes)

Virginia (04-..) - 11 active, 5 building, 30 total planned. Utilizes Seawolf's key technology and and design advances in smaller and cheaper platform. Has smaller depth, speed and armament, but similar sonars and noise characteristics. Better optimized for littoral operations. S9G reactor can operate 33 years without refueling.

From 11th submarine (commissioned in 2014) it uses new horseshoe-shaped Large Aperture Bow (LAB) sonar array, instead of spherical used on all US submarines since Tullibee. Another change is change is the switch from 12 vertical launch tubes, to 12 missiles in 2 tubes from Ohio SSGN.

-/7,800 t
30 knots
4 533-mm torpedo tubes (26 torpedoes) + 12 VLS for Tomahawk missiles