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Yamīn al-Dawla Abul-Qāṣim Maḥmūd ibn Sebüktegīn, more commonly known as Mahmud of Ghazni (Persian: محمود غَزنوی / Maḥmūd-e Ġaznawī; 2 November 971 – 30 April 1030), also known as Mahmud-i Zabuli (Persian:محمود زابلی), was the most prominent Turkic ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire. In the name of Islam, he conquered the eastern Iranian lands and the northwesternIndian subcontinent(modern Afghanistan and Pakistan) from 997 to his death in 1030. Mahmud turned the former provincial city of Ghazna into the wealthy capital of an extensive empire which covered most of today's Afghanistan, eastern Iran, and Pakistan He was the first ruler to carry the title Sultan("authority"), signifying the extent of his power, though preserving the ideological link to the suzerainty of the AbbassidCaliphate. During his rule, he invaded and plundered parts of Hindustan (east of the Indus River) 17 times
Early life and origins
Mahmud was born on Thursday, 10th of Muharram, 361 AH/ November 2, 971 AD (Old Style) in the town of Ghazna in Medieval Khorasan (in what is now south-eastern Afghanistan). His father, Abu Mansur Sabuktigin, was a Turkicslave-soldier of the Samanids. His mother was the daughter of a Persianaristocrat from Zabulistan.
Early career
Sultan Mahmud and his forces attacking the fortress ofZaranj
In 994, Mahmud joined his father Sebuktigin in the capture of Khorasan from the rebel Fa'iq in aid of the Samanid Emir, Nuh II. During this period the Samanid state became highly unstable, with shifting internal political tides as various factions vied for control, the chief among them being Abu'l-Qasim Simjuri, Fa'iq, Abu Ali[citation needed], the General Bekhtuzin as well as the neighbouring Buyids and Qarakhanids.
Reign
Mahmud took over his father's kingdom in 998 after defeating and capturing Ismail at theBattle of Ghazni. He then set out west from Ghazni to take the Kandahar region followed by Bost (Lashkar Gah), where he turned it into a militarized city.
In 1001, Mahmud initiated the first of numerous invasion of northern India. On 28 November, his army fought and defeated the army of Raja Jayapala of the Kabul Shahi dynasty atPeshawar. In 1002, Mahmud invaded Sistan, dethroned Khalaf I, last of the Saffarid amirs, and ended the Saffarid dynasty.[5] From there he decided to focus on Hindustan to the southeast, particularly the highly fertile lands of the Punjab region since south easternKhorasan (his native province) was mostly mountains, dry deserts and the fertile lands there had been poorly harvested and let to waste during the reign of the previous rulers.[citation needed] It should be noted that Punjab was well known for itsmangoes, oranges, bananas and other tropical fruits that Khorasan lacked and instead was famous for pomegranates and watermelons. It suggests that this has been the main reason for the Ghaznavids invading India because the fruit as well as rice, sugar, wheat, and other products exported to the Middle East and Central Asia generated more income than anything else for the rulers.[citation needed]
Mahmud's first campaign to the south was against the Ismaili Fatimid Kingdom at Multan in a bid to carry political favor and recognition with the Abbassid Caliphate; he also engaged with the Fatimids elsewhere. At this point, Jayapala attempted to gain revenge for an earlier military defeat at the hands of Mahmud's father, who had controlled Ghazni in the late 980s and had cost Jayapala extensive territory. His son Anandapala succeeded him and continued the struggle to avenge his father's suicide. He assembled a powerful confederacy which faced defeat as his elephant turned back from the battle in a crucial moment, turning the tide into Mahmud's favor once more at Lahore in 1008 bringing Mahmud into control of the Hindu Shahidominions of Udbandpura.[6]
Ghaznavid campaigns in Indian Subcontinent
Following the defeat of the Rajput Confederacy, after deciding to retaliate for their combined resistance, Mahmud then set out on regular expeditions against them, leaving the conquered kingdoms in the hands of Hindu vassals annexing only thePunjab region.[6] He also vowed to raid northwestern India every year.
In 1001 Mahmud of Ghazni had first invaded modern Afghanistan and Pakistan. Mahmud defeated, captured and later released Shahi ruler Jaya Pala who had moved his capital to Peshawar(modern Pakistan). Jaya Pala killed himself and was succeeded by his son Ananda Pala. In 1005 Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Bhatia (probably Bhera) and in 1006 he invadedMultan at which time Ananda Pala's army attacked him.The following year Mahmud of Ghazni attacked and crushed Sukha Pala, ruler of Bhatinda (who had became ruler by rebelling against the Shahi kingdom). In 1013, during Mahmud's 8th expedition into eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan, the Shahi kingdom (which was then under Trilochana Pala, son of Ananda Pala) was overthrown.[7]
In 1014 Mahmud led an expedition to Thanesar. The next year he unsuccessfully attacked Kashmir. In 1018, he attackedMathura and defeated a coalition of rulers there while also killing a ruler called Chandra Pala. In 1021 Mahmud supported the Kanauj king against Chandella Ganda who was defeated. That same year Shahi Trilochana Pala was killed at Rahib and his son Bhima Pala succeeded him. Lahore(modern Pakistan) was annexed by Mahmud. Mahmud besieged Gwalior, in 1023, where he was made a payment. Mahmud attacked Somnath, in 1025, and its ruler Bhima Deva I fled. The next year, he captured Somnath and marched to Kachch against Bhima Deva. That same year Mahmud also attacked the Jats of Jud.[7]
The Indian kingdoms of Nagarkot, Thanesar, Kannauj, Gwalior, and Ujjain were all conquered and left in the hands of Hindu,Jain and Buddhist Kings as vassal states and he was pragmatic enough not to shirk making alliances and enlisting local peoples into his armies at all ranks. Destroying them would destroy the will power of the Hindus attacking the Empire since Mahmud never kept a permanent presence in the northwestern subcontinent; Nagarkot, Thanesar, Mathura, Kannauj,Kalinjar and Somnath were all thus raided. Mahmud's armies stripped the temples of their wealth and then destroyed them at, Maheshwar, Jwalamukhi, Narunkot and Dwarka. During the period of Mahmud invasion, the Sindhi Swarankar Community and other Hindus who escaped conversion fled from Sindh to escape sectarian violence.
Patron of the arts and poetry
Mahmud brought whole libraries from Rayy and Isfahan to Ghazni. He even demanded that the Khwarizmshah court send its men of learning to Ghazni.
The notable poet Ferdowsi, after laboring 27 years, went to Ghazni and presented the Shahnameh to Mahmud. There are various stories in medieval texts describing the lack of interest shown by Mahmud in Ferdowsi and his life's work. According to historians, Mahmud had promised Ferdowsi a dinar for every distich written in the Shahnameh (60,000 dinars), but later retracted and presented him with dirhams (20,000 dirhams), the equivalent at that time of only 200 dinars.
Political challenges and his death
Tomb of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni in 1848.
The last four years of Mahmud's life were spent contending with the influx of Oghuz Turkic tribes from Central Asia, the Buyid Dynasty and rebellions by Seljuqs. Initially the Seljuks were repulsed by Mahmud and retired to Khwarezm but Togrül and Çagrı led them to capture Merv and Nishapur (1028–1029). Later they repeatedly raided and traded territory with his successors across Khorasan and Balkh and even sacked Ghazni in 1037. In 1040 at the Battle of Dandanaqan, they decisively defeated Mahmud's son, Mas'ud I resulting in Mas'ud abandoning most of his western territories to the Seljuks.
Sultan Mahmud died on 30 April 1030. His mausoleum is located in Ghazni, Afghanistan.
Campaign timeline[edit]
As emir[edit]
Attitude towards religious freedom
Mahmud, according to several contemporary accounts, considered himself a Ghazi who waged jihad on the Hindus. His plunder of Hindu temples and centers of learning is noted later in the article. Al-Biruni writes:
In the interest of his successors he constructed, in order to weaken the Indian frontier, those roads on which afterwards his son Mahmud marched into India during a period of thirty years and more. God be merciful to both father and son! Mahmud utterly ruined the prosperity of the country, and performed there wonderful exploits, by which the Hindus became like atoms of dust scattered in all directions, and like a tale of old in the mouth of the people. Their scattered remains cherish, of course, the most inveterate aversion towards all Muslims. This is the reason, too, why Hindu sciences have retired far away from those parts of the country conquered by us, and have fled to places which our hand cannot yet reach, to Kashmir, Benares, and other places. And there the antagonism between them and all foreigners receives more and more nourishment both from political and religious sources.[19]
Various historical sources such as Martin Ewans, E.J. Brill and Farishta have recorded the introduction of Islam to Kabul and other parts of Afghanistan to the conquests of and Mahmud:
The Arabs advanced through Sistan and conquered Sindh early in the eighth century. Elsewhere however their incursions were no more than temporary, and it was not until the rise of the Saffarid dynasty in the ninth century that the frontiers of Islam effectively reached Ghazni and Kabul. Even then a Hindu dynasty the Hindushahis, held Gandhara and eastern borders. From the tenth century onwards as Persian language and culture continued to spread into Afghanistan, the focus of power shifted to Ghazni, where a Turkish dynasty, who started by ruling the town for the Samanid dynasty of Bokhara, proceeded to create an empire in their own right. The greatest of the Ghaznavids was Muhmad who ruled between 998 and 1030. He expelled the Hindus from Gandhara, made no fewer than 17 raids into northwestern India,[20]
He encouraged mass conversions to Islam, in India as well as in Afghanistan[20]
Attack on 'Kafiristan':
Another crusade against idolatry was at length resolved on; and Mahmud led the seventh one against Nardain, the then boundary of India, or the eastern part of the Hindu Kush; separating as Firishta says, the countries of Hindustan and Turkistan and remarkable for its excellent fruit. The country into which the army of Ghazni marched appears to have been the same as that now called Kafirstan, where the inhabitants were and still are, idolaters and are named the Siah-Posh, or black-vested by the Muslims of later times. In Nardain there was a temple, which the army of Ghazni destroyed; and brought from thence a stone covered with certain inscriptions, which were according to the Hindus, of great antiquity.[21]
Massacres of Ismailis: In 965 CE, Multan was conquered by Halam b. Shayban, an Ismaili da’i. Soon after, Multan was attacked by the Ghaznavids, destabilizing the Ismaili state. Mahmud invaded Multan in 1005 CE, conducting a series of campaigns during which the Ismailis of Multan were massacred.[22]
Destruction of Somnath Temple
A Painting of the tomb of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, in 1839–40, with Sandalwood Doors long believed to be the Somnath, which he destroyed in ca 1024, later found to be replicas of the original.[23]
Mahmud conquered and destroyed thousands of Hindu temples during his raids including the famous Somnath Temple, which he destroyed in 1025 AD,[19] killing over 50,000 people who tried to defend it. The defenders included the 90-year-old clan leader Ghogha Rana. Mahmud had the gilded lingam broken into pieces and had them made into steps for his mosque and palace.[24][25]
The following extract is from “Wonders of Things Created, and marvels of Things Existing” by Zakariya al-Qazwini, a 13th-century Arab geographer. It contains the description of Somnath temple and its destruction:[19]
O you, who have believed, enter into Islam completely [and perfectly] and do not follow the footsteps of Satan. Indeed, he is to you a clear enemy. Noble Qur'an (2:208)
Al-Ubudiyyah comprises the servitude and slavery of the heart, tongue and limbs to Allah (SWT). The slavery of the heart includes both the Qawl (saying of the heart) and Amal (actions of the heart). So, Al-Ubudiyyah is a comprehensive term that asserts the meaning of the ayah:
"You Alone do we worship and You Alone do we seek for Help." Noble Qur'an (1:5)
Every person must have an ultimate aim in life which is the focus of his love and will. If a person does not have Allah (SWT) as the focus of his love and will, he will inevitably be enslaved by something else, whether it be his own pride, arrogance, wealth, power or something that he takes as a god instead of Allah (SWT). The heart cannot be sound or succeed or find joy or be happy or feel pleasure or be good or be at peace or find tranquility, except by worshipping its lord, loving Him and returning to Him.
Following Sultan Mahmood Ghaznavi and slave Ayaz Stories illustrate the true meaning of Ubudiyah: Being a True Slave of Allah (SWT).
There was once very cleaver slave called as Ayaz. He had an owner, who was wealthy merchant. But due to some mistake in business, this wealthy merchant becomes bankrupt. He has to sell all his belongings until he had nothing left except his slave Ayaz. Still he is in huge debt. Slave Ayaz suggested a solution to problem of finance facing by his master. That is, take me to slave market and sell me for a very high price. His master said, this is not the real solution to problem of finance, because nobody will going to buy you for a very high price. I know for sure my debt is huge then your own value.
So Ayaz suggested his master to sell him for a price of one million dirhams, but his master refused by saying nobody will going to buy you for one million dirhams. Again Ayaz insisted his master to sell him for a price of one million dirhams because he has some special quality in him which other slaves in the market don't have. His master says, I know that you are not young, strong or handsome. So what is that special quality you are talking about? Ayaz says, tell your buyers that Ayaz knows how to be a slave. That is Ayaz knows what the meaning of Ubudiyah is.
The owner of Ayaz think for a while and says, it worth a try. Then he took Ayaz to slave market and announces that he is selling Ayaz for one million dirhams. Everyone start laughing at him because in those days a slave was not worth more that 200-300 dirhams. It was something new so everyone start talking about it and the news reached the palace of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni.
Slave Ayaz replies to this Vizier that, he can not do that because Sultan is his master and he is happy with whatever his master does with him.
When Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi heard the answer of his slave Ayaz from his Vizier, he says, if that is his answer then I really brought him at very cheap price. Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi pleased with his slave Ayaz answer and immediately Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi ask Ayaz, Oh, Ayaz what type of food would you like to eat and what type of cloths would like to wear? Ayaz replies whatever my master gives me as food I will eat it and whatever my master give me the cloths I will wear it.
Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi start loving the qualities of his slave Ayaz so much that he make this slave Ayaz to be the chief Vizier or chief Minister of his court.
Dr. Allama Mohammed Iqbal, praises Islam and its teaching of equalitybetween different class of people in the following Urdu couplet by looking at the example of Sultan Mahmood Ghaznavi and slave Ayaz:
Ek Hi Saf Mein Khade Ho Gaye Mahmood-O-Ayaz,
Na Koi Banda Raha Aur Na Koi Banda Nawaz.
Banda-O-Saheb-O-Muhtaaj-O-Ghani Ek Huwe,
Teri Sarkar Mein Pahunche Toh Sabhi Ek Huwe.
So the first condition of success is to fill our heart with Divine Light. Filling our heart with Divine Light means dedication or surrender - renouncing everything to Allah (SWT).
Indeed, there are countless weaknesses of man that do not allow him to reach his desires. Just as man desires to have knowledge about a lot of things, but it is not possible for him. He wants to remember something but he forgets it. He prefers to forget a particular sin but he could not do so. He tries to concentrate on something and to get rid of worries and doubts, but he does not succeed. And he is attracted towards those things in which there is destruction for him and dislikes those things which are beneficial to him.
Apart from this he is in constant dread of losing something which is dear and precious to him, like wealth or children or his physical powers.
Almighty Allah (SWT) says in Noble Qur'an: "And they control not for themselves any harm or profit, and they control not death nor life, nor raising (the dead) to life." (Surah al-Furqan 25:3)
In brief, man is a mortal who has no control over his capabilities or susceptibilities. It is a fact that he is always in fear of death and there is none that can save him from death.
Finally Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi calls Ayaz and asks him to take a very closer look of the Gem and ask him to give the price for the Gem. Ayaz after examining the Gem very carefully tells Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi that, it is very expensive Gem and gave the highest value then all the ministers. Then Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi asks, what will be the value of this Gem if it broke? Ayaz reply that this Gem has no value if it breaks! To test Ayaz, Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi ask him to break the Gem stone, Ayaz breaks it very easily without any hesitation. So Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi says, Ayaz you broke such an expensive Gem stone. For that Ayaz reply, you command to break is more value then the Gem stone itself.
This is called total and complete surrender and obedience or Al-Ubudiyah, nothing is more valuable then pleasing and pleasure of Allah (SWT).
Ustad Zauq Says,
Gaya Shaitan Mara Ek Sajde Ke Na Karne Se
Agar Lakhon Baras Sajde Mein Sar Mara To Kya Mara?
@Arsalan @ajpirzada @Desertfalcon
Early life and origins
Mahmud was born on Thursday, 10th of Muharram, 361 AH/ November 2, 971 AD (Old Style) in the town of Ghazna in Medieval Khorasan (in what is now south-eastern Afghanistan). His father, Abu Mansur Sabuktigin, was a Turkicslave-soldier of the Samanids. His mother was the daughter of a Persianaristocrat from Zabulistan.
Early career
Sultan Mahmud and his forces attacking the fortress ofZaranj
In 994, Mahmud joined his father Sebuktigin in the capture of Khorasan from the rebel Fa'iq in aid of the Samanid Emir, Nuh II. During this period the Samanid state became highly unstable, with shifting internal political tides as various factions vied for control, the chief among them being Abu'l-Qasim Simjuri, Fa'iq, Abu Ali[citation needed], the General Bekhtuzin as well as the neighbouring Buyids and Qarakhanids.
Reign
Mahmud took over his father's kingdom in 998 after defeating and capturing Ismail at theBattle of Ghazni. He then set out west from Ghazni to take the Kandahar region followed by Bost (Lashkar Gah), where he turned it into a militarized city.
In 1001, Mahmud initiated the first of numerous invasion of northern India. On 28 November, his army fought and defeated the army of Raja Jayapala of the Kabul Shahi dynasty atPeshawar. In 1002, Mahmud invaded Sistan, dethroned Khalaf I, last of the Saffarid amirs, and ended the Saffarid dynasty.[5] From there he decided to focus on Hindustan to the southeast, particularly the highly fertile lands of the Punjab region since south easternKhorasan (his native province) was mostly mountains, dry deserts and the fertile lands there had been poorly harvested and let to waste during the reign of the previous rulers.[citation needed] It should be noted that Punjab was well known for itsmangoes, oranges, bananas and other tropical fruits that Khorasan lacked and instead was famous for pomegranates and watermelons. It suggests that this has been the main reason for the Ghaznavids invading India because the fruit as well as rice, sugar, wheat, and other products exported to the Middle East and Central Asia generated more income than anything else for the rulers.[citation needed]
Mahmud's first campaign to the south was against the Ismaili Fatimid Kingdom at Multan in a bid to carry political favor and recognition with the Abbassid Caliphate; he also engaged with the Fatimids elsewhere. At this point, Jayapala attempted to gain revenge for an earlier military defeat at the hands of Mahmud's father, who had controlled Ghazni in the late 980s and had cost Jayapala extensive territory. His son Anandapala succeeded him and continued the struggle to avenge his father's suicide. He assembled a powerful confederacy which faced defeat as his elephant turned back from the battle in a crucial moment, turning the tide into Mahmud's favor once more at Lahore in 1008 bringing Mahmud into control of the Hindu Shahidominions of Udbandpura.[6]
Ghaznavid campaigns in Indian Subcontinent
Following the defeat of the Rajput Confederacy, after deciding to retaliate for their combined resistance, Mahmud then set out on regular expeditions against them, leaving the conquered kingdoms in the hands of Hindu vassals annexing only thePunjab region.[6] He also vowed to raid northwestern India every year.
In 1001 Mahmud of Ghazni had first invaded modern Afghanistan and Pakistan. Mahmud defeated, captured and later released Shahi ruler Jaya Pala who had moved his capital to Peshawar(modern Pakistan). Jaya Pala killed himself and was succeeded by his son Ananda Pala. In 1005 Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Bhatia (probably Bhera) and in 1006 he invadedMultan at which time Ananda Pala's army attacked him.The following year Mahmud of Ghazni attacked and crushed Sukha Pala, ruler of Bhatinda (who had became ruler by rebelling against the Shahi kingdom). In 1013, during Mahmud's 8th expedition into eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan, the Shahi kingdom (which was then under Trilochana Pala, son of Ananda Pala) was overthrown.[7]
In 1014 Mahmud led an expedition to Thanesar. The next year he unsuccessfully attacked Kashmir. In 1018, he attackedMathura and defeated a coalition of rulers there while also killing a ruler called Chandra Pala. In 1021 Mahmud supported the Kanauj king against Chandella Ganda who was defeated. That same year Shahi Trilochana Pala was killed at Rahib and his son Bhima Pala succeeded him. Lahore(modern Pakistan) was annexed by Mahmud. Mahmud besieged Gwalior, in 1023, where he was made a payment. Mahmud attacked Somnath, in 1025, and its ruler Bhima Deva I fled. The next year, he captured Somnath and marched to Kachch against Bhima Deva. That same year Mahmud also attacked the Jats of Jud.[7]
The Indian kingdoms of Nagarkot, Thanesar, Kannauj, Gwalior, and Ujjain were all conquered and left in the hands of Hindu,Jain and Buddhist Kings as vassal states and he was pragmatic enough not to shirk making alliances and enlisting local peoples into his armies at all ranks. Destroying them would destroy the will power of the Hindus attacking the Empire since Mahmud never kept a permanent presence in the northwestern subcontinent; Nagarkot, Thanesar, Mathura, Kannauj,Kalinjar and Somnath were all thus raided. Mahmud's armies stripped the temples of their wealth and then destroyed them at, Maheshwar, Jwalamukhi, Narunkot and Dwarka. During the period of Mahmud invasion, the Sindhi Swarankar Community and other Hindus who escaped conversion fled from Sindh to escape sectarian violence.
Patron of the arts and poetry
Mahmud brought whole libraries from Rayy and Isfahan to Ghazni. He even demanded that the Khwarizmshah court send its men of learning to Ghazni.
The notable poet Ferdowsi, after laboring 27 years, went to Ghazni and presented the Shahnameh to Mahmud. There are various stories in medieval texts describing the lack of interest shown by Mahmud in Ferdowsi and his life's work. According to historians, Mahmud had promised Ferdowsi a dinar for every distich written in the Shahnameh (60,000 dinars), but later retracted and presented him with dirhams (20,000 dirhams), the equivalent at that time of only 200 dinars.
Political challenges and his death
Tomb of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni in 1848.
The last four years of Mahmud's life were spent contending with the influx of Oghuz Turkic tribes from Central Asia, the Buyid Dynasty and rebellions by Seljuqs. Initially the Seljuks were repulsed by Mahmud and retired to Khwarezm but Togrül and Çagrı led them to capture Merv and Nishapur (1028–1029). Later they repeatedly raided and traded territory with his successors across Khorasan and Balkh and even sacked Ghazni in 1037. In 1040 at the Battle of Dandanaqan, they decisively defeated Mahmud's son, Mas'ud I resulting in Mas'ud abandoning most of his western territories to the Seljuks.
Sultan Mahmud died on 30 April 1030. His mausoleum is located in Ghazni, Afghanistan.
Campaign timeline[edit]
As emir[edit]
- 994: Gained the title of Saif-ud-daula and became Governor of Khorasan under service to Nuh II of the Samanids in civil strife
- 995: The Samanid rebels Fa'iq (leader of a court faction that had defeated Alptigin's nomination for Emir) and Abu Ali expel Mahmud from Nishapur. Mahmud and Sabuktigin defeat Samanid rebels at Tus.
- 997: Qarakhanid Empire
- 999: Khorasan, Balkh, Herat, Merv from the Samanids. A concurrent invasion from the north by the Qarakhanids under Elik Khan (Nasr Khan) ends Samanid rule.
- 1000: Seistan from Saffarid Dynasty
- 1001: Gandhara: Sultan Mahmud defeats Jayapala at Peshawar; Jayapala subsequently abdicates and commits suicide.
- 1002: Seistan: Imprisoned Khuluf
- 1004: Bhatia (Bhera) annexed after it fails to pay its yearly tribute.[10] in 1004 CE
- 1005-6: Multan Fateh Daud the Shia Ismaili ruler of Multan[11] revolts and enlists the aid of Anandapala. Mahmud massacres the Ismailis[12][13] of Multan in the course of his conquest. Anandapala is defeated at Peshawar and pursued to Sodra (Wazirabad).
- 1005: Defends Balkh and Khorasan against Nasr I of the Qarakhanids and recaptures Nishapur from Isma'il Muntasir of the Samanids.
- 1005: Sewakpal rebels and is defeated.
- 1008: Mahmud defeats the Rajput/Indian Confederacy (Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kannauj, Delhi, and Ajmer) in battle between Und and Peshawar,[15] and captures the Shahi treasury at Kangra in Himachal Pradesh.
- 1010: Ghor; against Mohammad ibn Sur
- 1010: Multan revolts. Abul Fatah Dawood imprisoned for life at Ghazni.
- 1012-1013: Sacks Thaneshwar[16]
- 1012: Joor-jistan: Captures Sar(Czar??)-Abu-Nasr
- 1012: Invades Gharchistan and deposes it's ruler Abu Nasr Muhammad.
- 1012: Demands and receives remainder of the province of Khorasan from the Abassid Caliph. Then demandsSamarkand as well but is rebuffed.
- 1013: Bulnat: Defeats Trilochanpala.
- 1014 :Kafirstan attacked[17]
- 1015: Mahmud's army sacks Lahore, but his expedition to Kashmir fails, due to inclement weather.[18]
- 1015: Khwarezm: Marries his sister to Abul Abbas Mamun of Khwarezm who dies in the same year in a rebellion. Moves to quell the rebellion and installs a new ruler and annexes a portion.
- 1017: Kannauj, Meerut, and Muhavun on the Yamuna, Mathura and various other regions along the route. While moving through Kashmir he levies troops from vassal Prince for his onward march, Kannauj and Meerut submitted without battle.
- 1018-1020: Sacks Mathura[16]
- 1021: Raises Ayaz to kingship, awarding him the throne of Lahore
- 1021: Kalinjar attacks Kannauj: he marches to their aid and finds the last Shahi King Trilochanpaala encamped as well. No battle, the opponents leave their baggage trains and withdraw from the field. Also fails to take the fort of Lokote again. Takes Lahore on his return. Trilochanpala flees to Ajmer. First Muslim governors appointed east of the Indus River.
- 1023: Lahore. He fails to conquer Kalinjar and Gwalior: Trilochanpala, the grandson of Jayapala is assassinated by his own troops. Official annexation of Punjab by Ghazni. Also fails to take the Lohara fort on the western border of Kashmir for the second time.
- 1024: Ajmer, Nehrwala, Kathiawar: This raid was his last major campaign. The concentration of wealth at Somnath was renowned, and consequently it became an attractive target for Mahmud, as it had previously deterred most invaders. The temple and citadel were sacked, and most of its defenders massacred.
- 1024: Somnath: Mahmud sacked the temple and is reported to have personally hammered the temple's gilded Lingam to pieces and the stone fragments were carted back to Ghazni, where they were incorporated into the steps of the city's new Jama Masjid (Friday Mosque) in 1026. He placed a new king on the throne in Gujarat as a tributary. His return detoured across the Thar Desert to avoid the armies of Ajmer and other allies on his return.
- 1025: Marched against the Jats of the Jood mountains who harried his army on its return from the sack of Somnath.
- 1027: Rey, Isfahan, Hamadan from the Buyid (Daylami) Dynasty.
- 1028, 1029: Merv, Nishapur lost to Seljuk Turks
Attitude towards religious freedom
Mahmud, according to several contemporary accounts, considered himself a Ghazi who waged jihad on the Hindus. His plunder of Hindu temples and centers of learning is noted later in the article. Al-Biruni writes:
In the interest of his successors he constructed, in order to weaken the Indian frontier, those roads on which afterwards his son Mahmud marched into India during a period of thirty years and more. God be merciful to both father and son! Mahmud utterly ruined the prosperity of the country, and performed there wonderful exploits, by which the Hindus became like atoms of dust scattered in all directions, and like a tale of old in the mouth of the people. Their scattered remains cherish, of course, the most inveterate aversion towards all Muslims. This is the reason, too, why Hindu sciences have retired far away from those parts of the country conquered by us, and have fled to places which our hand cannot yet reach, to Kashmir, Benares, and other places. And there the antagonism between them and all foreigners receives more and more nourishment both from political and religious sources.[19]
Various historical sources such as Martin Ewans, E.J. Brill and Farishta have recorded the introduction of Islam to Kabul and other parts of Afghanistan to the conquests of and Mahmud:
The Arabs advanced through Sistan and conquered Sindh early in the eighth century. Elsewhere however their incursions were no more than temporary, and it was not until the rise of the Saffarid dynasty in the ninth century that the frontiers of Islam effectively reached Ghazni and Kabul. Even then a Hindu dynasty the Hindushahis, held Gandhara and eastern borders. From the tenth century onwards as Persian language and culture continued to spread into Afghanistan, the focus of power shifted to Ghazni, where a Turkish dynasty, who started by ruling the town for the Samanid dynasty of Bokhara, proceeded to create an empire in their own right. The greatest of the Ghaznavids was Muhmad who ruled between 998 and 1030. He expelled the Hindus from Gandhara, made no fewer than 17 raids into northwestern India,[20]
He encouraged mass conversions to Islam, in India as well as in Afghanistan[20]
Attack on 'Kafiristan':
Another crusade against idolatry was at length resolved on; and Mahmud led the seventh one against Nardain, the then boundary of India, or the eastern part of the Hindu Kush; separating as Firishta says, the countries of Hindustan and Turkistan and remarkable for its excellent fruit. The country into which the army of Ghazni marched appears to have been the same as that now called Kafirstan, where the inhabitants were and still are, idolaters and are named the Siah-Posh, or black-vested by the Muslims of later times. In Nardain there was a temple, which the army of Ghazni destroyed; and brought from thence a stone covered with certain inscriptions, which were according to the Hindus, of great antiquity.[21]
Massacres of Ismailis: In 965 CE, Multan was conquered by Halam b. Shayban, an Ismaili da’i. Soon after, Multan was attacked by the Ghaznavids, destabilizing the Ismaili state. Mahmud invaded Multan in 1005 CE, conducting a series of campaigns during which the Ismailis of Multan were massacred.[22]
Destruction of Somnath Temple
A Painting of the tomb of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, in 1839–40, with Sandalwood Doors long believed to be the Somnath, which he destroyed in ca 1024, later found to be replicas of the original.[23]
Mahmud conquered and destroyed thousands of Hindu temples during his raids including the famous Somnath Temple, which he destroyed in 1025 AD,[19] killing over 50,000 people who tried to defend it. The defenders included the 90-year-old clan leader Ghogha Rana. Mahmud had the gilded lingam broken into pieces and had them made into steps for his mosque and palace.[24][25]
The following extract is from “Wonders of Things Created, and marvels of Things Existing” by Zakariya al-Qazwini, a 13th-century Arab geographer. It contains the description of Somnath temple and its destruction:[19]
Somnath: celebrated city of India, situated on the shore of the sea, and washed by its waves. Among the wonders of that place was the temple in which was placed the idol called Somnath. This idol was in the middle of the temple without anything to support it from below, or to suspend it from above. It was held in the highest honor among the Hindus, and whoever beheld it floating in the air was struck with amazement, whether he was a Musulman or an infidel. The Hindus used to go on pilgrimage to it whenever there was an eclipse of the moon, and would then assemble there to the number of more than a hundred thousand.
When the Sultan Yaminu-d Daula Mahmud Bin Subuktigin (Mahmud of Ghazni) went to wage religious war against India, he made great efforts to capture and destroy Somnath, in the hope that the Hindus would then become Muhammadans. As a result thousands of Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam. He arrived there in the middle of Zi-l k’ada, 416 A.H. (December, 1025 A.D.). “The king looked upon the idol with wonder, and gave orders for the seizing of the spoil, and dinars."[19]
Regional attitudes towards Mahmud's memory
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Verse to Mahmud of Ghazni
In Afghanistan and Pakistan Mahmud is celebrated as a hero and a great patron of the arts, architecture, literature, and Persian revivalism as well as a vanguard of Islam and a paragon of virtue and piety who established the standard of Islam in India. The military of Pakistan has named its short-range ballistic missile in the honour of Mahmud of Ghazni, the Ghaznavi Missile.[26] In addition to this, the Pakistan Military Academy, where cadets are trained for becoming Officers of the Pakistan Army also gives tribute the Mahmud of Ghazni by naming one of its twelve companies; Ghaznavi Company.
In modern Pakistan he is hailed as a conquering hero who established the standard of Islam upon heathen land, while in India he is a raiding iconoclastic invader, bent upon the loot and plunder of a peaceful Hindu population. In India, Mahmud is therefore seen as a ruthless invader who plundered the temples of India and caused long lasting damage. His attacks onMathura, Gandhara and Somnath are seen as decisive events in the history of North India and a sign of its subjugation to Islamic invasions. The fact that Mahmud never tried consolidating his conquests choosing instead to target a different region and different temples on each of his invasions is seen as evidence that he was interested in loot.[27]
Iranians remember him as an Orthodox Sunni who was responsible for the revival of the Persian culture by commissioning and appointing Persians to high offices in his administration as ministers, viziers and generals. In addition Iranians remember him for the promotion and preference of Persian language instead of Turkish and patronage of great nationalist poets and scholars such as Ferdowsi and Al-Biruni as well as his Lion and Sun flag which was once a flag symbol in the Imperial state of Iran.
Legacy[edit]
Coins of Mahmud with the Islamic declaration of faith. Obverse legend with the name of the caliph al-Qadir bi-llah (in the fifth line). Reverse legend:Muhammad Rasul/Allah Yamin al-Daw/la wa-Amin al-Milla/Mahmud.
Mahmud of Ghazni, under his reign the region broke away from the Samanid sphere of influence. While he acknowledged the Abbasids as caliph as a matter of form, he was also granted the title Sultan as recognition of his independence.
By the end of his reign, the Ghaznavid Empire extended from Ray in the west toSamarkand in the north-east, and from the Caspian Sea to the Yamuna. Although his raids carried his forces across the South Asia, only a portion of Punjab andSindh in modern-day Pakistan, came under his semi-permanent rule; Kashmir, theDoab, Rajasthan and Gujarat remained under the control of the local Hindu dynasties.
The booty brought back to Ghazni was enormous, and contemporary historians (e.g.Abolfazl Beyhaghi, Ferdowsi) give descriptions of the magnificence of the capital, as well as of the conqueror's munificent support of literature. He transformed Ghazni, the first centre of Persian literature,[28] into one of the leading cities of Central Asia, patronizing scholars, establishing colleges, laying out gardens, and building mosques, palaces, and caravansaries. He patronized Ferdowsi to write theShahnameh; and, after his expedition across the Gangetic plains in 1017, of Al-Biruni to compose his Tarikh Al-Hind in order to understand the Indians and their beliefs.
On 30 April 1030, Sultan Mahmud died in Ghazni, at the age of 59. Sultan Mahmud had contracted malaria during his last invasion. The medical complication from malaria had caused lethal tuberculosis. During his rule, universities were founded to study various subjects such as mathematics, religion, the humanities, and medicine. Islam was the main religion of his kingdom. Persian spoken in the empire was made to the official language.
The Ghaznavid Empire was ruled by his successors for 157 years. The expanding Seljuk Turkish empire absorbed most of the Ghaznavid west. The Ghorids captured Ghazni in 1150 A.D., and Mu'izz al-Din (also known as Muhammad of Ghori) captured the last Ghaznavid stronghold at Lahore in 1187. The Ghaznavids went on to live as the Nasher Khans in their home of Ghazni until the 20th century.
The Song Dynasty customs inspector Zhao Rugua (趙汝适) wrote a two-volume work about the countries and people of the known world (according to the Chinese) called the Zhufan Zhi (諸蕃志, "Description of the Barbarous Peoples," c. 1225). The first volume has an entry for Ghazni which reads:
Regional attitudes towards Mahmud's memory
Verse to Mahmud of Ghazni
In Afghanistan and Pakistan Mahmud is celebrated as a hero and a great patron of the arts, architecture, literature, and Persian revivalism as well as a vanguard of Islam and a paragon of virtue and piety who established the standard of Islam in India. The military of Pakistan has named its short-range ballistic missile in the honour of Mahmud of Ghazni, the Ghaznavi Missile.[26] In addition to this, the Pakistan Military Academy, where cadets are trained for becoming Officers of the Pakistan Army also gives tribute the Mahmud of Ghazni by naming one of its twelve companies; Ghaznavi Company.
In modern Pakistan he is hailed as a conquering hero who established the standard of Islam upon heathen land, while in India he is a raiding iconoclastic invader, bent upon the loot and plunder of a peaceful Hindu population. In India, Mahmud is therefore seen as a ruthless invader who plundered the temples of India and caused long lasting damage. His attacks onMathura, Gandhara and Somnath are seen as decisive events in the history of North India and a sign of its subjugation to Islamic invasions. The fact that Mahmud never tried consolidating his conquests choosing instead to target a different region and different temples on each of his invasions is seen as evidence that he was interested in loot.[27]
Iranians remember him as an Orthodox Sunni who was responsible for the revival of the Persian culture by commissioning and appointing Persians to high offices in his administration as ministers, viziers and generals. In addition Iranians remember him for the promotion and preference of Persian language instead of Turkish and patronage of great nationalist poets and scholars such as Ferdowsi and Al-Biruni as well as his Lion and Sun flag which was once a flag symbol in the Imperial state of Iran.
Legacy[edit]
Coins of Mahmud with the Islamic declaration of faith. Obverse legend with the name of the caliph al-Qadir bi-llah (in the fifth line). Reverse legend:Muhammad Rasul/Allah Yamin al-Daw/la wa-Amin al-Milla/Mahmud.
Mahmud of Ghazni, under his reign the region broke away from the Samanid sphere of influence. While he acknowledged the Abbasids as caliph as a matter of form, he was also granted the title Sultan as recognition of his independence.
By the end of his reign, the Ghaznavid Empire extended from Ray in the west toSamarkand in the north-east, and from the Caspian Sea to the Yamuna. Although his raids carried his forces across the South Asia, only a portion of Punjab andSindh in modern-day Pakistan, came under his semi-permanent rule; Kashmir, theDoab, Rajasthan and Gujarat remained under the control of the local Hindu dynasties.
The booty brought back to Ghazni was enormous, and contemporary historians (e.g.Abolfazl Beyhaghi, Ferdowsi) give descriptions of the magnificence of the capital, as well as of the conqueror's munificent support of literature. He transformed Ghazni, the first centre of Persian literature,[28] into one of the leading cities of Central Asia, patronizing scholars, establishing colleges, laying out gardens, and building mosques, palaces, and caravansaries. He patronized Ferdowsi to write theShahnameh; and, after his expedition across the Gangetic plains in 1017, of Al-Biruni to compose his Tarikh Al-Hind in order to understand the Indians and their beliefs.
On 30 April 1030, Sultan Mahmud died in Ghazni, at the age of 59. Sultan Mahmud had contracted malaria during his last invasion. The medical complication from malaria had caused lethal tuberculosis. During his rule, universities were founded to study various subjects such as mathematics, religion, the humanities, and medicine. Islam was the main religion of his kingdom. Persian spoken in the empire was made to the official language.
The Ghaznavid Empire was ruled by his successors for 157 years. The expanding Seljuk Turkish empire absorbed most of the Ghaznavid west. The Ghorids captured Ghazni in 1150 A.D., and Mu'izz al-Din (also known as Muhammad of Ghori) captured the last Ghaznavid stronghold at Lahore in 1187. The Ghaznavids went on to live as the Nasher Khans in their home of Ghazni until the 20th century.
The Song Dynasty customs inspector Zhao Rugua (趙汝适) wrote a two-volume work about the countries and people of the known world (according to the Chinese) called the Zhufan Zhi (諸蕃志, "Description of the Barbarous Peoples," c. 1225). The first volume has an entry for Ghazni which reads:
The king's arms reach down to below his knees. He has an [sic] hundred chargers, every one full six feet high, also some dozen head of mules, three feet high, which, on excursions, he rides alternately with the horses. His bow pulls several piculs, so that five or seven ordinary men cannot string it. When he is on horseback, he carries an iron mace weighing full fifty catties. ... [A]ll the people of the west fear him.[29]
Friedrich Hirth, one of the translators of Zhao's work, believes this was based on some embellished tale about Mahmud that was brought to China by Arab merchants.[30]
Family[edit]
Sultan Mahmud was born on 2 November 971 AD in Ghazni to first Ghaznavid Sultan Sebüktigin, Yusuf Sebüktigin being his younger brother. He was married to a woman named Kausari Jahan and had twin sons Mohammad and Ma'sud, who succeeded him one after the other, while his grandson by Mas'ud, Maw'dud Ghaznavi was also ruler of the empire but many of 18th century books nullify such claims.His sister Sitr-i-Mu'alla was married to Dawood bin Ataullah Alavi also known asGhazi Salar Sahu, whose son was Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud
His companion was a Turkish slave Malik Ayaz and their relationship inspired poems and stories.
We named our Missile after this lion @Aeronaut @Rashid Mahmood @HRK @PWFI @Areesh @A.Rafay
Friedrich Hirth, one of the translators of Zhao's work, believes this was based on some embellished tale about Mahmud that was brought to China by Arab merchants.[30]
Family[edit]
Sultan Mahmud was born on 2 November 971 AD in Ghazni to first Ghaznavid Sultan Sebüktigin, Yusuf Sebüktigin being his younger brother. He was married to a woman named Kausari Jahan and had twin sons Mohammad and Ma'sud, who succeeded him one after the other, while his grandson by Mas'ud, Maw'dud Ghaznavi was also ruler of the empire but many of 18th century books nullify such claims.His sister Sitr-i-Mu'alla was married to Dawood bin Ataullah Alavi also known asGhazi Salar Sahu, whose son was Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud
His companion was a Turkish slave Malik Ayaz and their relationship inspired poems and stories.
We named our Missile after this lion @Aeronaut @Rashid Mahmood @HRK @PWFI @Areesh @A.Rafay
Al-Ubudiyyah comprises the servitude and slavery of the heart, tongue and limbs to Allah (SWT). The slavery of the heart includes both the Qawl (saying of the heart) and Amal (actions of the heart). So, Al-Ubudiyyah is a comprehensive term that asserts the meaning of the ayah:
"You Alone do we worship and You Alone do we seek for Help." Noble Qur'an (1:5)
Every person must have an ultimate aim in life which is the focus of his love and will. If a person does not have Allah (SWT) as the focus of his love and will, he will inevitably be enslaved by something else, whether it be his own pride, arrogance, wealth, power or something that he takes as a god instead of Allah (SWT). The heart cannot be sound or succeed or find joy or be happy or feel pleasure or be good or be at peace or find tranquility, except by worshipping its lord, loving Him and returning to Him.
Following Sultan Mahmood Ghaznavi and slave Ayaz Stories illustrate the true meaning of Ubudiyah: Being a True Slave of Allah (SWT).
There was once very cleaver slave called as Ayaz. He had an owner, who was wealthy merchant. But due to some mistake in business, this wealthy merchant becomes bankrupt. He has to sell all his belongings until he had nothing left except his slave Ayaz. Still he is in huge debt. Slave Ayaz suggested a solution to problem of finance facing by his master. That is, take me to slave market and sell me for a very high price. His master said, this is not the real solution to problem of finance, because nobody will going to buy you for a very high price. I know for sure my debt is huge then your own value.
So Ayaz suggested his master to sell him for a price of one million dirhams, but his master refused by saying nobody will going to buy you for one million dirhams. Again Ayaz insisted his master to sell him for a price of one million dirhams because he has some special quality in him which other slaves in the market don't have. His master says, I know that you are not young, strong or handsome. So what is that special quality you are talking about? Ayaz says, tell your buyers that Ayaz knows how to be a slave. That is Ayaz knows what the meaning of Ubudiyah is.
The owner of Ayaz think for a while and says, it worth a try. Then he took Ayaz to slave market and announces that he is selling Ayaz for one million dirhams. Everyone start laughing at him because in those days a slave was not worth more that 200-300 dirhams. It was something new so everyone start talking about it and the news reached the palace of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni.
When Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi heard the answer of his slave Ayaz from his Vizier, he says, if that is his answer then I really brought him at very cheap price. Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi pleased with his slave Ayaz answer and immediately Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi ask Ayaz, Oh, Ayaz what type of food would you like to eat and what type of cloths would like to wear? Ayaz replies whatever my master gives me as food I will eat it and whatever my master give me the cloths I will wear it.
Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi start loving the qualities of his slave Ayaz so much that he make this slave Ayaz to be the chief Vizier or chief Minister of his court.
Ek Hi Saf Mein Khade Ho Gaye Mahmood-O-Ayaz,
Na Koi Banda Raha Aur Na Koi Banda Nawaz.
Banda-O-Saheb-O-Muhtaaj-O-Ghani Ek Huwe,
Teri Sarkar Mein Pahunche Toh Sabhi Ek Huwe.
So the first condition of success is to fill our heart with Divine Light. Filling our heart with Divine Light means dedication or surrender - renouncing everything to Allah (SWT).
Indeed, there are countless weaknesses of man that do not allow him to reach his desires. Just as man desires to have knowledge about a lot of things, but it is not possible for him. He wants to remember something but he forgets it. He prefers to forget a particular sin but he could not do so. He tries to concentrate on something and to get rid of worries and doubts, but he does not succeed. And he is attracted towards those things in which there is destruction for him and dislikes those things which are beneficial to him.
Apart from this he is in constant dread of losing something which is dear and precious to him, like wealth or children or his physical powers.
Almighty Allah (SWT) says in Noble Qur'an: "And they control not for themselves any harm or profit, and they control not death nor life, nor raising (the dead) to life." (Surah al-Furqan 25:3)
In brief, man is a mortal who has no control over his capabilities or susceptibilities. It is a fact that he is always in fear of death and there is none that can save him from death.
This is called total and complete surrender and obedience or Al-Ubudiyah, nothing is more valuable then pleasing and pleasure of Allah (SWT).
Ustad Zauq Says,
Gaya Shaitan Mara Ek Sajde Ke Na Karne Se
Agar Lakhon Baras Sajde Mein Sar Mara To Kya Mara?
@Arsalan @ajpirzada @Desertfalcon
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