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Shifting trends: Special forces equipment
Ever-evolving battlefields have seen international special operations forces refocus their equipment requirements. Jim Dorschner reports
International special operations forces (SOF) equipment requirements have altered considerably since 2001, in keeping with the dramatic changes in SOF employment trends around the world.
During the 1990s the focus was on enhanced mobility in the form of extremely light, unprotected patrol vehicles and lightweight digital communications that adopted emerging information technology (IT) developments with battlefield applications, such as data burst capabilities.
Operations in Bosnia highlighted the requirement for special forces (SF) teams to perform precision ground forward air control (FAC) of tactical airpower and the need for a range of advanced surveillance and intelligence collection systems specifically tailored for SF, such as portable and vehicle-mounted, all-weather electro-optical systems.
The multifaceted global SOF operational environment since 2001 has opened the door to a plethora of new equipment developments, supported by comparatively generous budgets and driven by demanding requirements.
Along with traditional long-range reconnaissance and surveillance, and direct action missions, there is a new emphasis on complex counterinsurgency (COIN) operations and foreign forces training, known as foreign internal defence (FID) in US parlance.
A number of the trends in SOF equipment are in marked contrast to a decade ago when much of the procurement consisted of small numbers of items specifically designed to satisfy SOF requirements. On operations today in places such as Iraq and Afghanistan - where improvised explosive devices do not discriminate between SOF and conventional forces - recent light and fast dune buggy-type vehicles have made way for the same heavy mine-resistant ambush-protected (MRAP) vehicles employed by conventional forces.
While the United States SOF community has benefitted the most from developments, SOF across Australasia, Canada and Europe are also exploring new equipment options that make the most of niche capabilities and emerging technology, while counterparts in China, the Middle East, Russia, South Asia and elsewhere are following developments with keen interest.
Unsurprisingly, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) systems top the list of SOF requirements, including unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), but mobility also remains important - from all-terrain vehicles to specially equipped C-130 Hercules transport aircraft and helicopters. SOF forces around the world are also constantly looking for better weapons.
US and UK special forces kept track of recent fighting in Basra, Iraq, between government forces and Shia militias using real-time imagery from US Air Force (USAF) General Atomics Aeronautical Systems Inc (GA-ASI) Predators and British Army Elbit Hermes 450 UAVs operating over the city.
The UAVs were able to provide vital intelligence to the Iraqi commanders the forces were working with using L-3 Communications ROVER III (remotely operated video enhanced receiver) terminals. US SOF joint terminal attack co-ordination (JTAC) teams working in conjunction with Iraqi government troops also used the terminals to direct a series of air strikes on militia positions.
In Europe, Israel's Elbit Systems has sold the Skylark mini-UAV to French special forces. Skylark I is a manportable tactical UAV designed for day/night observation and reconnaissance missions out to 10 km.
According to Elbit, the Skylark I has an "exceptionally" quiet electric motor and is capable of "totally autonomous flight". Elbit believes the French order will pave the way for further contracts with other "European NATO member countries" in an SF role.
Poland may have already added Skylark to its GROM SF unit, which had earlier employed the Aeronautics Defence Systems' Orbiter UAV in Afghanistan and Skylark I UAVs are deployed there with Australian, Canadian and Dutch forces, including support to SF operations.
UAV support
The USAF Special Operations Command (AFSOC) operates the widest array of UAVs in support of SOF.
At the lower end, AFSOC Combat Controllers have access to two manportable systems - the Boeing ScanEagle and the GA-ASI AeroVironment RQ-11 Raven. Raven has a colour electro-optical camera and an infrared camera for night operations and a range of 8-12 km.
These will be supplanted eventually by the Battlefield Air Targeting Micro Air Vehicle (BATMAV) programme - with an expendable air vehicle (AV), a ground control unit (GCU) and a communications ground station (CGS).
For BATMAV the air force has approved full-rate production of the backpack-sized Wasp III, manufactured by AeroVironment. The Wasp III has a wingspan of 29 inches (73.6 cm), weighs 1 lb (453 g) and carries forward- and side-looking colour cameras, with an endurance of 45 minutes. The collapsible, lightweight AV has a two-bladed propeller driven by a small electric motor, an internal GPS/inertial navigation system (INS), autopilot and two onboard cameras. The entire system can function autonomously or be controlled by a single operator using a handheld remote control unit.
At the high end of SOF UAVs is the MQ-1 Predator surveillance and attack platform.
Predator is equipped with a colour nose camera (generally used by the pilot for flight control) a day variable-aperture TV camera, a variable-aperture infrared camera for low-light/night and a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) for imaging through smoke, clouds or haze. The cameras produce full-motion video while the SAR produces still-frame radar images.
The MQ-1's Multispectral Targeting System includes an AGM-114 Hellfire missile targeting capability and integrates electro-optical, infrared, laser designator and laser illuminator into a single sensor package. The aircraft can employ two laser-guided Hellfire anti-tank missiles with a variety of warheads and recently integrated the Raytheon Archer Real-Time Attack System: an adaptation of the Javelin anti-tank missile. Twenty-eight MQ-1 Predator UAVs, associated support equipment and manpower joined AFSOC in 2007 and are operated by the 3rd Special Operations Squadron: part of the 1st Special Operations Wing, from Creech AFB, Nevada.
In addition to ISR and attack missions, AFSOC has begun using UAVs to deliver small quantities of ammunition, medicine and equipment to teams in the field. The MMIST CQ-10A SnowGoose has a round trunk airframe with a single propeller and lands via parachute. With a maximum speed of just 35 kt, it can be launched from the back of a Humvee or from another aircraft, can reach 18,000 ft on its own and is virtually undetectable. High Altitude Low Opening (HALO) parachutes provide delivery of 45 kg bundles with autonomous precision.
US SF operating in the rugged mountains of eastern Afghanistan along the porous Pakistani border are reportedly using Raytheon/DRS Technologies Long Range Advanced Scout Surveillance Systems (LRAS3) systems to monitor activity. LRAS3 provides precise far-target location by incorporating advanced second-generation forward-looking infrared (FLIR) technology, a global positioning interferometer, an eye-safe laser rangefinder, a designator laser for guided weapons and a day video camera. Too heavy and bulky to be manportable, the systems are normally vehicle-mounted or used on tripods at forward observation posts.
AFSOC and the US Army's 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (SOAR) collectively operate the world's largest fleet of aircraft dedicated to SOF missions and multiple programmes are well underway to both increase numbers and enhance capability.
AFSOC has an order in for 50 Bell Boeing CV-22 Osprey tiltrotor aircraft and wants more. Four are now in service and AFSOC hopes to have 12 on duty by the end of 2008. The CV-22 will replace the long-serving MH-53 helicopter with a cutting-edge platform capable of flying farther and faster with greater payloads. To improve survivability and lethality, BAE Systems has successfully tested a Remote Guardian System (RGS) on a CV-22, mounted in the belly, providing all-quadrant suppressive-fire capability. The retractable turret, paired with a sensor, mounts a 7.62 mm GAU-2B mini gun.
The AFSOC fixed-wing inventory will be further improved with new orders for specially configured versions of the Lockheed Martin KC-130J Hercules tanker. The Fiscal Year 2009 budget request also includes funding for 14 KC-130Js - an unspecified number of which will replace MC-130E/P special operations aircraft. AFSOC ultimately wants to replace 37 MC-130E/P aircraft with an increased fleet of around 60 aircraft under the Combat Rescue Tanker (CRT) programme, with the KC-130J heavily favoured. Lockheed Martin plans to rapidly modify the KC-130J to meet AFSOC requirements, including a FLIR system, the capability to both refuel other aircraft and to receive fuel and a third seat in the cockpit for an electronic warfare (EW) operator.
Meanwhile, 12 'new' MC-130W Combat Spear multirole special operations tanker transports were recently delivered to AFSOC to replace four MC-130H and one MC-130P lost since 2001.
The programme modifies C-130H aircraft from the 1987 to 1990 period and includes a basic EW capability, the ability to work in special light conditions and a strengthened tail, improved navigation, threat detection and countermeasures, and communications. The navigation suite is a fully integrated GPS and INS that interfaces with the AN/APN-241 Low Power Colour Radar and AN/AAQ-17 Infrared Detection System.
Improved threat detection and countermeasures systems include advanced radar and missile warning receivers, chaff and flare dispensers and active infrared countermeasures. The communication systems upgrade includes dual satellite communications with data burst. Structural improvements include the addition of the universal aerial refuelling receptacle slipway installation and a strengthened tail to allow high-speed low-level aerial delivery system airdrop operations. The MC-130W is equipped with Mk 32B-902E refuelling pods to refuel SOF helicopters and the CV-22.
JCA concepts
AFSOC also has plans for the Raytheon/Alenia C-27J Spartan light airlifter, selected as the joint army-air force Joint Cargo Aircraft (JCA). One concept calls for a tanker version able to refuel helicopters and tilt-rotor aircraft, while supporting SOF in forward areas with aerial delivery and short-field light airlift and medical evacuation. Another option is for an AC-27J with a Bushmaster 30 mm cannon and additional sensors to augment 25 high-demand AC-130H and AC-130U gunships. As well as providing fire support, an AC-27J would be able to provide limited tactical airlift and ISR capability.
One unique AFSOC programme is the conversion of 12 second-hand Pilatus PC-12 turboprops into U-28A Special Operations support aircraft with secure communications, a defensive aids suite and night-vision capability. Most are employed in the light airlift and SOF aerial command post roles, but several have been modified with electro-optical systems and possibly signals intelligence (SIGINT) systems to provide tactical ISR. Given the popularity of the aircraft with AFSOC, additional acquisitions are likely.
New procurement for the US Army's 160th SOAR is focused entirely on the advanced MH-47G version of the venerable Chinook. Boeing has delivered around 40 MH-47Gs so far and in addition to the 2nd Battalion at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, some of these are going to equip the recently activated 4th Battalion at Fort Lewis, Washington. Current plans call for the delivery of at least 61 MH-47Gs by 2011. The MH-47G features a number of upgrades, including more efficient engines, improved avionics, reduced interior vibration and improved air transportability. A fully integrated digital common avionics architecture system (CAAS) integrates global communications, navigation, survivability and situational awareness capabilities.
The US is not alone is pursuing SOF air capabilities. Due to combat losses of SF-equipped Hercules C.1 (C-130K) transports since 2001, the UK Royal Air Force (RAF) has similarly modified a number of C.3s (C-130K-30) for the role with improved defensive aids, communications and sensors and is likely to do the same with some of the newer C.5s (C-130J).
In terms of helicopters, while the RAF is converting six Chinook HC.3s originally ordered and equipped for the SF role into standard HC.2s, these will probably retain a SF capability post-retrofit. Likewise, six Merlin HC.3A helicopters obtained from Denmark join 22 HC.3s on strength, some of which are already equipped with the appropriate sensors, defensive aids and aerial refuelling probes for SF missions.
France has brought the long-range Eurocopter EC-725 into service with both air force (six) and army (eight) special operations elements. These are equipped with advanced sensors and defensive aids, including Dassault Electronique EWR-99 FRUIT radar warning receivers, Alkan ELIPS multipurpose chaff/flare dispensers and a FLIR system. They also boast significant ballistic protection, heavy armament and an aerial refuelling probe. The NH90 will also eventually equip French Army SOF aviation and the SF aviation elements of Australia, Finland, Germany, Greece, Italy, New Zealand Oman and Spain. Given extensive delays with the NH90 programme, Germany is reportedly considering an interim lease or purchase of SF-capable EC-725s.
Elsewhere, the Jordanian Special Operations Aviation Brigade now operates eight Sikorsky UH-60L Black Hawks obtained through the US Foreign Military Sales (FMS) programme in 2003, while the Brazilian Air Force has taken on 12 Black Hawks to provide a SOF capability. As a potential harbinger of even more SF-related procurement, the Indian Air Force (IAF) has ordered six Lockheed Martin C-130J-30 Hercules via FMS specifically for SF support in a deal valued at USD962 million.
The aircraft will be delivered by December 2011 for use by an IAF special operations unit. The contract includes the ATK AN/AAR-47 missile warning system; radar warning receivers; a countermeasure dispensing system for protection against heat-seeking missiles; avionics designed for SF missions, including night operations and low-level extraction; plus ancillary equipment such as parachutes, boats, ground support equipment and special vehicles.
Under the deal the IAF will receive three years-worth of spares, including engines, and the construction of dedicated ground infrastructure at the Hindon airfield outside Delhi where the aircraft will be based. The cost also includes training for 18 officers and 100 technicians in the US. The C-130Js will directly support the Indian Army's seven SF battalions, expected to increase to 10 by 2010.
The cutting edge of US Navy Special Warfare (NSW) sea craft is the experimental M80 Stiletto, with distinctive multiple hulls. Mini vortexes between each hull suspend the ship above the water.
More prosaic are the 20 Mark 5 Special Operations Craft used by NSW for medium-range insertion and extraction of SEAL teams and other SOF in low- to medium-threat environments. Mark 5s have a crew of five and carry up to 16 passengers. The craft are propelled by two MTU 12V396 TE94 diesel engines and two KaMeWa K50S waterjets delivering top speeds of around 50 kt and have an operating range of about 600 n miles. The Mark 5s have multiple gun mounts for automatic grenade launchers and twin .50 calibre machine guns providing 360-degree coverage.
They were manufactured by VT Halter Marine with a unit cost of USD3.7 million in the late 1990s. NSW is considering a new version - the 25 m Mark 5.1 by Hogdon Yachts with a composite hull designed to make the ride smoother.
Specialist boatbuilder US Marine makes a line of small boats for NSW, including the Special Operations Craft-Riverine (SOC-R) and the NSW Rigid Inflatable Boat (RIB).
The SOC-R is a high-speed boat designed exclusively for operations in restricted inland waterways. The 10 m aluminium hull is powered by 440 Twin Yanmar Diesels and Hamilton Waterjets providing a top speed of more than 40 kt and a range nearly in excess of 200 n miles.
The NSW RIB is a high-speed, high-buoyancy, extreme-weather craft intended for the insertion/extraction of SEAL teams from beaches. The hull is made of glass-reinforced plastic with a length of 10.9 m. Twin Caterpillar Diesels and KaMeWa waterjets deliver top speeds of more than 45 kt and a range in excess of 200 n miles.
Zodiac boats remain extremely popular with US SOF and with other SOF around the world, particularly the F-470 4.7 m Combat Rubber Raiding Craft (CRRC) and the new military folding RIB design christened 'Ribster'. In 2002, Zodiac unveiled Armorflate: the "world's first inflatable bullet-resistant system for combat rubber raiding craft".
The UK Special Boat Service (SBS) uses the 8.5 m Arctic 28 RIB from VT Halmatic, carrying up to 10 men, powered by twin 200/250 hp outboards delivering a top speed of more than 50 kt and a range of 200 n miles.
Like its US counterparts, Arctic 28s can be dropped by helicopter or parachuted from C-130 transports. The companion Arctic 22 RIB is nearly 7 m long and has a top speed of 45 kt carrying a five-man team with a range of 150 n miles. The SBS also reportedly uses stealthy, wave-piercing high-speed interceptors, thought to be the FB MIL-50P made in Italy by Fabio Buzzi Design and powered by three 1,000 hp Seatek engines giving a top speed of 70 kt.
The naval special forces of Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden use versions of the extremely capable Combat Boat 90 (CB 90), built in Sweden by Dockstavarvet AB. They are also thought to be used by SOF units in Brazil, Germany, Mexico and elsewhere.
CB 90s can transport 20 operators and their equipment or 2.8 tons of cargo at 30 kt in a dry interior cabin with access to a narrow bow landing ramp. They are economical and relatively simple to operate and maintain. The aft 25 per cent of the hull, behind an insulated watertight bulkhead, houses two 460 kW Scania diesel engines driving KaMeWa water jets.
The wheelhouse 'module' is splinter-protected and accommodates the helmsman and the commanding officer/navigator in a compact, cockpit-type layout with an extra seat in the centre line for an instructor or troop commander.
The weapons fit comprises a .50 calibre machine gun or a 40 mm grenade launcher on a ring mount aft of the wheelhouse and a fixed double .50 calibre machine gun mounted in front of the helmsman's position. The twin mount is aimed by pointing the craft - with elevation and fire control incorporated into the helmsman's controls. The CB 90 can also be armed with the modified Hellfire-type RBS 17 missile system.
Submarines and associated underwater craft are another important aspect of maritime SOF equipment. The US Navy is converting four former Ohio-class ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) into specialist land-attack and SOF-support submarines (SSGNs). These four boats will be armed with Tomahawk missiles and will have the ability to carry and support a team of 66 SOF personnel for up to 90 days. Clandestine insertion and retrieval of SOF is enhanced by the ability to host dual dry deck shelters and/or SEAL delivery systems. The first operational SSGN land-attack submarine, USS Ohio (SSGN 726), deployed in October 2007 and will be followed back into service by Michigan, Florida and Georgia.
The SSGNs are designed to operate two Advanced Seal Delivery System (ASDS) mini-subs to carry SEAL teams and their equipment. Each ASDS was originally supposed to cost USD80 million, but costs have ballooned to around USD446 million and may rise to more than USD2 billion in total. With only a single ASDS in service so far, NSW continues to rely on much less capable 1980s-vintage SDSs. Naval SF in France, the UK and elsewhere use similar vehicles along with modified submarines.
Turning to the small-arms arena, Poland's GROM special forces unit is the latest to opt for the 5.56 mm Heckler and Koch HK416 assault rifle with an order for several hundred in two configurations - the HK416D10RS and the HK416D145RS. The latter are equipped with 40 mm AG-HK416 (GLM) grenade launchers. The new rifles will be the unit's primary weapon, replacing the M4.
Close protection
In 2007 the GROM procured a number of 5.7 mm FN P90 submachine guns for close-protection duties and a number of 5.56 mm FN F2000 tactical assault rifles for use in Afghanistan.
The HK416 was developed by Heckler and Koch in conjunction with the premier SOF operators of 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta in the US and is proving popular with SF units around the world, having been selected by Denmark, Indonesia, the Netherlands, Norway, Turkey and others. The 416 is essentially an improved Colt M4 carbine using a more reliable piston rather than the gas operating system of the M4.
Meanwhile, India has ordered an additional 1,000 Israeli 5.56 mm TAR-21 Tavor assault rifles for use by SF, supplementing the 3,070 purchased in 2002 for around USD20 million. The additional TAR-21s from Israel Weapon Industries (IWI) will equip the last two SF battalions not already armed with the weapon. Indian SF sources expect the follow-on order to be "smoother and quicker" than the original purchase, which suffered a delay of nearly five years with deliveries only being completed in September 2007.
Like the earlier batch, the additional TAR-21s will come with modifications to the bullpup design and with sights supplied by Israel's International Technical Lasers, in addition to 40 mm M203 under-barrel grenade launchers provided by Turkey. IMI/IWI has also supplied around 130 Galil 7.62 mm sniper rifles and some 450,000 rounds of ammunition to India's SF. The TAR-21 is also used by Israeli SF.
The Lithuanian armed forces have chosen to replace all the assault rifles currently in service with Heckler and Koch 5.56 x 45 mm G36V and G36KVs. G36s have been in use with the 'Kite' (Aitvaras) SF unit in Afghanistan since 2004. The G36 replaced Beryl 5.56 mm assault rifles and 40 mm Pallad underslung grenade launchers donated by Poland in 2000. The Lithuanian contract, worth USD19 million, covers the delivery of an undisclosed number of rifles - probably between 7,000 and 9,000 - as well as AG36 grenade launchers, spares and maintenance kits. Deliveries will begin this year.
In the US, the long-running Special Operations Forces Combat Assault Rifle (SCAR) programme is preparing to enter a final phase of initial operational test and evaluation prior to a full-rate production decision, projected for late in the second quarter of 2008. Being developed by FNH USA under a US Special Operations Command contract awarded in 2004, the SCAR weapon system includes the Mk 16 (5.56 x 45 mm), Mk 17 (7.62 x 51 mm) and Mk 13 (standalone 40 x 46 mm grenade launcher) variants. Initial delivery of some 2,800 weapons will be spread across all elements of the US SOF community.
Jim Dorschner JDW Correspondent, Bucharest
Shifting trends: Special forces equipment
Ever-evolving battlefields have seen international special operations forces refocus their equipment requirements. Jim Dorschner reports
International special operations forces (SOF) equipment requirements have altered considerably since 2001, in keeping with the dramatic changes in SOF employment trends around the world.
During the 1990s the focus was on enhanced mobility in the form of extremely light, unprotected patrol vehicles and lightweight digital communications that adopted emerging information technology (IT) developments with battlefield applications, such as data burst capabilities.
Operations in Bosnia highlighted the requirement for special forces (SF) teams to perform precision ground forward air control (FAC) of tactical airpower and the need for a range of advanced surveillance and intelligence collection systems specifically tailored for SF, such as portable and vehicle-mounted, all-weather electro-optical systems.
The multifaceted global SOF operational environment since 2001 has opened the door to a plethora of new equipment developments, supported by comparatively generous budgets and driven by demanding requirements.
Along with traditional long-range reconnaissance and surveillance, and direct action missions, there is a new emphasis on complex counterinsurgency (COIN) operations and foreign forces training, known as foreign internal defence (FID) in US parlance.
A number of the trends in SOF equipment are in marked contrast to a decade ago when much of the procurement consisted of small numbers of items specifically designed to satisfy SOF requirements. On operations today in places such as Iraq and Afghanistan - where improvised explosive devices do not discriminate between SOF and conventional forces - recent light and fast dune buggy-type vehicles have made way for the same heavy mine-resistant ambush-protected (MRAP) vehicles employed by conventional forces.
While the United States SOF community has benefitted the most from developments, SOF across Australasia, Canada and Europe are also exploring new equipment options that make the most of niche capabilities and emerging technology, while counterparts in China, the Middle East, Russia, South Asia and elsewhere are following developments with keen interest.
Unsurprisingly, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) systems top the list of SOF requirements, including unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), but mobility also remains important - from all-terrain vehicles to specially equipped C-130 Hercules transport aircraft and helicopters. SOF forces around the world are also constantly looking for better weapons.
US and UK special forces kept track of recent fighting in Basra, Iraq, between government forces and Shia militias using real-time imagery from US Air Force (USAF) General Atomics Aeronautical Systems Inc (GA-ASI) Predators and British Army Elbit Hermes 450 UAVs operating over the city.
The UAVs were able to provide vital intelligence to the Iraqi commanders the forces were working with using L-3 Communications ROVER III (remotely operated video enhanced receiver) terminals. US SOF joint terminal attack co-ordination (JTAC) teams working in conjunction with Iraqi government troops also used the terminals to direct a series of air strikes on militia positions.
In Europe, Israel's Elbit Systems has sold the Skylark mini-UAV to French special forces. Skylark I is a manportable tactical UAV designed for day/night observation and reconnaissance missions out to 10 km.
According to Elbit, the Skylark I has an "exceptionally" quiet electric motor and is capable of "totally autonomous flight". Elbit believes the French order will pave the way for further contracts with other "European NATO member countries" in an SF role.
Poland may have already added Skylark to its GROM SF unit, which had earlier employed the Aeronautics Defence Systems' Orbiter UAV in Afghanistan and Skylark I UAVs are deployed there with Australian, Canadian and Dutch forces, including support to SF operations.
UAV support
The USAF Special Operations Command (AFSOC) operates the widest array of UAVs in support of SOF.
At the lower end, AFSOC Combat Controllers have access to two manportable systems - the Boeing ScanEagle and the GA-ASI AeroVironment RQ-11 Raven. Raven has a colour electro-optical camera and an infrared camera for night operations and a range of 8-12 km.
These will be supplanted eventually by the Battlefield Air Targeting Micro Air Vehicle (BATMAV) programme - with an expendable air vehicle (AV), a ground control unit (GCU) and a communications ground station (CGS).
For BATMAV the air force has approved full-rate production of the backpack-sized Wasp III, manufactured by AeroVironment. The Wasp III has a wingspan of 29 inches (73.6 cm), weighs 1 lb (453 g) and carries forward- and side-looking colour cameras, with an endurance of 45 minutes. The collapsible, lightweight AV has a two-bladed propeller driven by a small electric motor, an internal GPS/inertial navigation system (INS), autopilot and two onboard cameras. The entire system can function autonomously or be controlled by a single operator using a handheld remote control unit.
At the high end of SOF UAVs is the MQ-1 Predator surveillance and attack platform.
Predator is equipped with a colour nose camera (generally used by the pilot for flight control) a day variable-aperture TV camera, a variable-aperture infrared camera for low-light/night and a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) for imaging through smoke, clouds or haze. The cameras produce full-motion video while the SAR produces still-frame radar images.
The MQ-1's Multispectral Targeting System includes an AGM-114 Hellfire missile targeting capability and integrates electro-optical, infrared, laser designator and laser illuminator into a single sensor package. The aircraft can employ two laser-guided Hellfire anti-tank missiles with a variety of warheads and recently integrated the Raytheon Archer Real-Time Attack System: an adaptation of the Javelin anti-tank missile. Twenty-eight MQ-1 Predator UAVs, associated support equipment and manpower joined AFSOC in 2007 and are operated by the 3rd Special Operations Squadron: part of the 1st Special Operations Wing, from Creech AFB, Nevada.
In addition to ISR and attack missions, AFSOC has begun using UAVs to deliver small quantities of ammunition, medicine and equipment to teams in the field. The MMIST CQ-10A SnowGoose has a round trunk airframe with a single propeller and lands via parachute. With a maximum speed of just 35 kt, it can be launched from the back of a Humvee or from another aircraft, can reach 18,000 ft on its own and is virtually undetectable. High Altitude Low Opening (HALO) parachutes provide delivery of 45 kg bundles with autonomous precision.
US SF operating in the rugged mountains of eastern Afghanistan along the porous Pakistani border are reportedly using Raytheon/DRS Technologies Long Range Advanced Scout Surveillance Systems (LRAS3) systems to monitor activity. LRAS3 provides precise far-target location by incorporating advanced second-generation forward-looking infrared (FLIR) technology, a global positioning interferometer, an eye-safe laser rangefinder, a designator laser for guided weapons and a day video camera. Too heavy and bulky to be manportable, the systems are normally vehicle-mounted or used on tripods at forward observation posts.
AFSOC and the US Army's 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (SOAR) collectively operate the world's largest fleet of aircraft dedicated to SOF missions and multiple programmes are well underway to both increase numbers and enhance capability.
AFSOC has an order in for 50 Bell Boeing CV-22 Osprey tiltrotor aircraft and wants more. Four are now in service and AFSOC hopes to have 12 on duty by the end of 2008. The CV-22 will replace the long-serving MH-53 helicopter with a cutting-edge platform capable of flying farther and faster with greater payloads. To improve survivability and lethality, BAE Systems has successfully tested a Remote Guardian System (RGS) on a CV-22, mounted in the belly, providing all-quadrant suppressive-fire capability. The retractable turret, paired with a sensor, mounts a 7.62 mm GAU-2B mini gun.
The AFSOC fixed-wing inventory will be further improved with new orders for specially configured versions of the Lockheed Martin KC-130J Hercules tanker. The Fiscal Year 2009 budget request also includes funding for 14 KC-130Js - an unspecified number of which will replace MC-130E/P special operations aircraft. AFSOC ultimately wants to replace 37 MC-130E/P aircraft with an increased fleet of around 60 aircraft under the Combat Rescue Tanker (CRT) programme, with the KC-130J heavily favoured. Lockheed Martin plans to rapidly modify the KC-130J to meet AFSOC requirements, including a FLIR system, the capability to both refuel other aircraft and to receive fuel and a third seat in the cockpit for an electronic warfare (EW) operator.
Meanwhile, 12 'new' MC-130W Combat Spear multirole special operations tanker transports were recently delivered to AFSOC to replace four MC-130H and one MC-130P lost since 2001.
The programme modifies C-130H aircraft from the 1987 to 1990 period and includes a basic EW capability, the ability to work in special light conditions and a strengthened tail, improved navigation, threat detection and countermeasures, and communications. The navigation suite is a fully integrated GPS and INS that interfaces with the AN/APN-241 Low Power Colour Radar and AN/AAQ-17 Infrared Detection System.
Improved threat detection and countermeasures systems include advanced radar and missile warning receivers, chaff and flare dispensers and active infrared countermeasures. The communication systems upgrade includes dual satellite communications with data burst. Structural improvements include the addition of the universal aerial refuelling receptacle slipway installation and a strengthened tail to allow high-speed low-level aerial delivery system airdrop operations. The MC-130W is equipped with Mk 32B-902E refuelling pods to refuel SOF helicopters and the CV-22.
JCA concepts
AFSOC also has plans for the Raytheon/Alenia C-27J Spartan light airlifter, selected as the joint army-air force Joint Cargo Aircraft (JCA). One concept calls for a tanker version able to refuel helicopters and tilt-rotor aircraft, while supporting SOF in forward areas with aerial delivery and short-field light airlift and medical evacuation. Another option is for an AC-27J with a Bushmaster 30 mm cannon and additional sensors to augment 25 high-demand AC-130H and AC-130U gunships. As well as providing fire support, an AC-27J would be able to provide limited tactical airlift and ISR capability.
One unique AFSOC programme is the conversion of 12 second-hand Pilatus PC-12 turboprops into U-28A Special Operations support aircraft with secure communications, a defensive aids suite and night-vision capability. Most are employed in the light airlift and SOF aerial command post roles, but several have been modified with electro-optical systems and possibly signals intelligence (SIGINT) systems to provide tactical ISR. Given the popularity of the aircraft with AFSOC, additional acquisitions are likely.
New procurement for the US Army's 160th SOAR is focused entirely on the advanced MH-47G version of the venerable Chinook. Boeing has delivered around 40 MH-47Gs so far and in addition to the 2nd Battalion at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, some of these are going to equip the recently activated 4th Battalion at Fort Lewis, Washington. Current plans call for the delivery of at least 61 MH-47Gs by 2011. The MH-47G features a number of upgrades, including more efficient engines, improved avionics, reduced interior vibration and improved air transportability. A fully integrated digital common avionics architecture system (CAAS) integrates global communications, navigation, survivability and situational awareness capabilities.
The US is not alone is pursuing SOF air capabilities. Due to combat losses of SF-equipped Hercules C.1 (C-130K) transports since 2001, the UK Royal Air Force (RAF) has similarly modified a number of C.3s (C-130K-30) for the role with improved defensive aids, communications and sensors and is likely to do the same with some of the newer C.5s (C-130J).
In terms of helicopters, while the RAF is converting six Chinook HC.3s originally ordered and equipped for the SF role into standard HC.2s, these will probably retain a SF capability post-retrofit. Likewise, six Merlin HC.3A helicopters obtained from Denmark join 22 HC.3s on strength, some of which are already equipped with the appropriate sensors, defensive aids and aerial refuelling probes for SF missions.
France has brought the long-range Eurocopter EC-725 into service with both air force (six) and army (eight) special operations elements. These are equipped with advanced sensors and defensive aids, including Dassault Electronique EWR-99 FRUIT radar warning receivers, Alkan ELIPS multipurpose chaff/flare dispensers and a FLIR system. They also boast significant ballistic protection, heavy armament and an aerial refuelling probe. The NH90 will also eventually equip French Army SOF aviation and the SF aviation elements of Australia, Finland, Germany, Greece, Italy, New Zealand Oman and Spain. Given extensive delays with the NH90 programme, Germany is reportedly considering an interim lease or purchase of SF-capable EC-725s.
Elsewhere, the Jordanian Special Operations Aviation Brigade now operates eight Sikorsky UH-60L Black Hawks obtained through the US Foreign Military Sales (FMS) programme in 2003, while the Brazilian Air Force has taken on 12 Black Hawks to provide a SOF capability. As a potential harbinger of even more SF-related procurement, the Indian Air Force (IAF) has ordered six Lockheed Martin C-130J-30 Hercules via FMS specifically for SF support in a deal valued at USD962 million.
The aircraft will be delivered by December 2011 for use by an IAF special operations unit. The contract includes the ATK AN/AAR-47 missile warning system; radar warning receivers; a countermeasure dispensing system for protection against heat-seeking missiles; avionics designed for SF missions, including night operations and low-level extraction; plus ancillary equipment such as parachutes, boats, ground support equipment and special vehicles.
Under the deal the IAF will receive three years-worth of spares, including engines, and the construction of dedicated ground infrastructure at the Hindon airfield outside Delhi where the aircraft will be based. The cost also includes training for 18 officers and 100 technicians in the US. The C-130Js will directly support the Indian Army's seven SF battalions, expected to increase to 10 by 2010.
The cutting edge of US Navy Special Warfare (NSW) sea craft is the experimental M80 Stiletto, with distinctive multiple hulls. Mini vortexes between each hull suspend the ship above the water.
More prosaic are the 20 Mark 5 Special Operations Craft used by NSW for medium-range insertion and extraction of SEAL teams and other SOF in low- to medium-threat environments. Mark 5s have a crew of five and carry up to 16 passengers. The craft are propelled by two MTU 12V396 TE94 diesel engines and two KaMeWa K50S waterjets delivering top speeds of around 50 kt and have an operating range of about 600 n miles. The Mark 5s have multiple gun mounts for automatic grenade launchers and twin .50 calibre machine guns providing 360-degree coverage.
They were manufactured by VT Halter Marine with a unit cost of USD3.7 million in the late 1990s. NSW is considering a new version - the 25 m Mark 5.1 by Hogdon Yachts with a composite hull designed to make the ride smoother.
Specialist boatbuilder US Marine makes a line of small boats for NSW, including the Special Operations Craft-Riverine (SOC-R) and the NSW Rigid Inflatable Boat (RIB).
The SOC-R is a high-speed boat designed exclusively for operations in restricted inland waterways. The 10 m aluminium hull is powered by 440 Twin Yanmar Diesels and Hamilton Waterjets providing a top speed of more than 40 kt and a range nearly in excess of 200 n miles.
The NSW RIB is a high-speed, high-buoyancy, extreme-weather craft intended for the insertion/extraction of SEAL teams from beaches. The hull is made of glass-reinforced plastic with a length of 10.9 m. Twin Caterpillar Diesels and KaMeWa waterjets deliver top speeds of more than 45 kt and a range in excess of 200 n miles.
Zodiac boats remain extremely popular with US SOF and with other SOF around the world, particularly the F-470 4.7 m Combat Rubber Raiding Craft (CRRC) and the new military folding RIB design christened 'Ribster'. In 2002, Zodiac unveiled Armorflate: the "world's first inflatable bullet-resistant system for combat rubber raiding craft".
The UK Special Boat Service (SBS) uses the 8.5 m Arctic 28 RIB from VT Halmatic, carrying up to 10 men, powered by twin 200/250 hp outboards delivering a top speed of more than 50 kt and a range of 200 n miles.
Like its US counterparts, Arctic 28s can be dropped by helicopter or parachuted from C-130 transports. The companion Arctic 22 RIB is nearly 7 m long and has a top speed of 45 kt carrying a five-man team with a range of 150 n miles. The SBS also reportedly uses stealthy, wave-piercing high-speed interceptors, thought to be the FB MIL-50P made in Italy by Fabio Buzzi Design and powered by three 1,000 hp Seatek engines giving a top speed of 70 kt.
The naval special forces of Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden use versions of the extremely capable Combat Boat 90 (CB 90), built in Sweden by Dockstavarvet AB. They are also thought to be used by SOF units in Brazil, Germany, Mexico and elsewhere.
CB 90s can transport 20 operators and their equipment or 2.8 tons of cargo at 30 kt in a dry interior cabin with access to a narrow bow landing ramp. They are economical and relatively simple to operate and maintain. The aft 25 per cent of the hull, behind an insulated watertight bulkhead, houses two 460 kW Scania diesel engines driving KaMeWa water jets.
The wheelhouse 'module' is splinter-protected and accommodates the helmsman and the commanding officer/navigator in a compact, cockpit-type layout with an extra seat in the centre line for an instructor or troop commander.
The weapons fit comprises a .50 calibre machine gun or a 40 mm grenade launcher on a ring mount aft of the wheelhouse and a fixed double .50 calibre machine gun mounted in front of the helmsman's position. The twin mount is aimed by pointing the craft - with elevation and fire control incorporated into the helmsman's controls. The CB 90 can also be armed with the modified Hellfire-type RBS 17 missile system.
Submarines and associated underwater craft are another important aspect of maritime SOF equipment. The US Navy is converting four former Ohio-class ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) into specialist land-attack and SOF-support submarines (SSGNs). These four boats will be armed with Tomahawk missiles and will have the ability to carry and support a team of 66 SOF personnel for up to 90 days. Clandestine insertion and retrieval of SOF is enhanced by the ability to host dual dry deck shelters and/or SEAL delivery systems. The first operational SSGN land-attack submarine, USS Ohio (SSGN 726), deployed in October 2007 and will be followed back into service by Michigan, Florida and Georgia.
The SSGNs are designed to operate two Advanced Seal Delivery System (ASDS) mini-subs to carry SEAL teams and their equipment. Each ASDS was originally supposed to cost USD80 million, but costs have ballooned to around USD446 million and may rise to more than USD2 billion in total. With only a single ASDS in service so far, NSW continues to rely on much less capable 1980s-vintage SDSs. Naval SF in France, the UK and elsewhere use similar vehicles along with modified submarines.
Turning to the small-arms arena, Poland's GROM special forces unit is the latest to opt for the 5.56 mm Heckler and Koch HK416 assault rifle with an order for several hundred in two configurations - the HK416D10RS and the HK416D145RS. The latter are equipped with 40 mm AG-HK416 (GLM) grenade launchers. The new rifles will be the unit's primary weapon, replacing the M4.
Close protection
In 2007 the GROM procured a number of 5.7 mm FN P90 submachine guns for close-protection duties and a number of 5.56 mm FN F2000 tactical assault rifles for use in Afghanistan.
The HK416 was developed by Heckler and Koch in conjunction with the premier SOF operators of 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta in the US and is proving popular with SF units around the world, having been selected by Denmark, Indonesia, the Netherlands, Norway, Turkey and others. The 416 is essentially an improved Colt M4 carbine using a more reliable piston rather than the gas operating system of the M4.
Meanwhile, India has ordered an additional 1,000 Israeli 5.56 mm TAR-21 Tavor assault rifles for use by SF, supplementing the 3,070 purchased in 2002 for around USD20 million. The additional TAR-21s from Israel Weapon Industries (IWI) will equip the last two SF battalions not already armed with the weapon. Indian SF sources expect the follow-on order to be "smoother and quicker" than the original purchase, which suffered a delay of nearly five years with deliveries only being completed in September 2007.
Like the earlier batch, the additional TAR-21s will come with modifications to the bullpup design and with sights supplied by Israel's International Technical Lasers, in addition to 40 mm M203 under-barrel grenade launchers provided by Turkey. IMI/IWI has also supplied around 130 Galil 7.62 mm sniper rifles and some 450,000 rounds of ammunition to India's SF. The TAR-21 is also used by Israeli SF.
The Lithuanian armed forces have chosen to replace all the assault rifles currently in service with Heckler and Koch 5.56 x 45 mm G36V and G36KVs. G36s have been in use with the 'Kite' (Aitvaras) SF unit in Afghanistan since 2004. The G36 replaced Beryl 5.56 mm assault rifles and 40 mm Pallad underslung grenade launchers donated by Poland in 2000. The Lithuanian contract, worth USD19 million, covers the delivery of an undisclosed number of rifles - probably between 7,000 and 9,000 - as well as AG36 grenade launchers, spares and maintenance kits. Deliveries will begin this year.
In the US, the long-running Special Operations Forces Combat Assault Rifle (SCAR) programme is preparing to enter a final phase of initial operational test and evaluation prior to a full-rate production decision, projected for late in the second quarter of 2008. Being developed by FNH USA under a US Special Operations Command contract awarded in 2004, the SCAR weapon system includes the Mk 16 (5.56 x 45 mm), Mk 17 (7.62 x 51 mm) and Mk 13 (standalone 40 x 46 mm grenade launcher) variants. Initial delivery of some 2,800 weapons will be spread across all elements of the US SOF community.
Jim Dorschner JDW Correspondent, Bucharest
