Remembering Al-Andalus

[SajjLad]

There was some discussion earlier about the lost Islamic civilization of Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain) and thought a thread to discuss the 700 year long rule of the Moors of Iberia.

Some important dates in the history of Al-Andalus:

711: Tariq Ibn Zayid, commander of the Umayyad forces from North Africa, lands upon the Iberian Peninsula.

717: Conquest of Iberia completed, the Visigoths are vanquished and the Umayyads in Damascus rule over a territory reaching from Portugal to the borders of modern day Pakistan.

756: a Prince of the ousted Umayyad dynasty (overthrown by the rival Abbasids) escapes a myriad of dangers, assasins and armies, travels through North Africa to the safe haven of Al-Andalus, where he defeats local would-be rivals in battle and declares himself Emir of Córdoba (Qurtuba) and restarts his almost extinct dynasty.

784: First construction of what would be known as the Grand Mosque of Córdoba.

929: Abd Al-Rahman III, Umayyad Emir of Córdoba and descendant of the legendary Abd-Ar-Rahman I, having forced the northern Christian Kingdoms of Leon and Navarre into submission, and defeating the guerilla forces of the Muladi (native convert to Islam) Ibn Hafsun, declares himself Caliph in a fit of glory, adding the Caliphate of Córdoba to the other two Caliphate in existence (the Fatimids and the aforementioned Abbasids).

976: the reign of the famous Al-Mansur, vizier to the boy Caliph Al-Hisham II. Al-Mansur would lead multiple campaigns against the various Christian realms in the north of the peninsula, going as far as sacking the famous Cathedral Santiago De Compostela in 988, taking its church bells and melting them for lanterns of the Great Mosque in Córdoba.

1008: a civil war breaks out between the descendants of Al-Mansur and various branches of the Umayyad dynasty, combined with an invasion from the north under Sancho III (known s the Great) who unites the three Christian realms of Leon, Navarre and Castile.

1031: Hisham III last Caliph of Córdoba, is imprisoned and never heard of again. This marks the end of the Caliphate of Córdoba, with military and political power in Islamic Spain disintegrating to petty rulers.

1031 - 1091: the period of the Taifas, various petty emirates who make up what was once the Caliphate of Córdoba. They are vast and diverse in the rulership, ranging from the typical Arab Aristocracy routed in Abd-Ur-Rahman I's arrival, ladder climbing Berber military chiefs, Muladi peasant community leaders, and even in the case of the Taifa of Denia, being led by former Slaves of Sequilaba (Slavic) origin. Although they aren't military weka, and many even act as vassals for the resurgent Christians, high culture and learning is promoted during this time period.

1085: Yusuf Ibn Tashfin of the Berber Almoravid Empire which dominated North Africa all the way to the Sahel, is invited to invade Iberia in the name of protecting its Muslim inhabitants.

1097: Yusuf Ibn Tashfin and his North African Army successfully reconquer majority of the former Caliphate of Córdoba. After friendly correspondence with the Caliph in Baghdad, he is granted the title of Amir Al-Muslimeen (Commander of the Muslims).

1146: the unworthy and short lived successors of Yusuf Ibn Tashfin lose territory in both Africa and Iberia, and by the mid 12th century they are replaced with a new North African dynasty, the Almohads.

1195: Battle of Allarcos - Ya'qub I of the Almohads defeats the Castilian King Alfonso VII, and puts a spanner in the works for the reconquista for a generation.

1212: Battle of Las Navas De Tolosa - a confederacy of Spanish Christian states unite to defeat the Almohads in battle under the leadership of Muhammad Al-Nasir, this loss can be seen as the final halt in any further Almohad expansion within Iberia, due to loss of morale, internal problems and troubles back in North Africa.

1228: Almohad power within Iberia is all but non-existant, power disintegrates once more to petty princes and lords, beginning of the second Taifa period.

1236 onwards: in the vacuum of power left between the disintegration of the Almohads and the continuing reconquista expanding into southern Spain, Muhammad an-Nasir (not the same man as Almohad leader) establishes the Emirate of Granada along Spain's southern coast. Granada survives mostly as a tributary state to Castile, providing gold from the Trans-Sahara route dominated by Arab and Berber Muslims. Over the course of time all other Muslim statelets are conquered, whilst Granada remains the bulwark of Islamic culture in Spain.

Whilst Granada continues this stable but demeaning status quo for over two centuries, developments eventually end this arrangement, such as the Portuguese circumventing an alternative route to the plentiful lands of Subsaharan Africa (removing Granada's necessary role in trade) and the union between Castile and Aragon in 1469, uniting the two Christian dynasties which had focused on rivalry with each other up till that point, now setting their sights upon completing the reconquista.

1482 - Beginning of the Granada War between the Emirate of Granada and the newly United Kingdom of Spain.

1492: Despite holding out for nearly a decade, the Spanish Christians lay siege to Granada itself in 1491, and by 1492 the Treaty of Granada is signed, and the final emir of Granada, Muhammad XII (known as Boabdil in the west) is forced to surrender his ancestral territory. Thus ends the last Muslim entity in the Iberian Peninsula.

This is just a brief and rough outline of the events, there are many events which I missed (the events of the Morisco revolt following the Fall of Granada springs to mind) and I'd be fine if anyone would like to pick up on them and I can edit this later. Also I focused very heavily on the political side of events, whilst only giving a brief mention to cultural events, which we can also further elaborate on (the works of Averroes, Dunash Ben Labrat, Abulcasais, Ibn Tufail etc).

@I.R.A @ShadowCrisp @The SC

 

[The SC]

Morisco rebellions in Granada
In southern Spain, following the conquest of Granada city in 1492 by the "Catholic Monarchs" - Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabel of Castile - the Moorish inhabitants of the city and province twice revolted against Christian rule. The second rebellion led to the expulsion of 80,000 Moriscos from the city and province. The last mass prosecution against Moriscos for crypto-Islamic practices occurred in Granada in 1727, with most of those convicted receiving relatively light sentences. From then on, indigenous Islam is considered to have been extinguished in Spain.

The fall of Granada and the first rebellion of the Moors, 1499-1500
In the wake of the Reconquista most of the Moors had continued to live in Spain, and until the 16th century were granted religious freedom, albeit subject to some legal discrimination. They became known as Mudéjares.

The Kingdom of Granada was the last Muslim-ruled state in Spain. After a long siege, the city of Granada fell to the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella I, in 1492. The Muslim population was initially tolerated under the terms of the Treaty of Granada. However, pressure on them to convert to Christianity led to the 1499 uprising in Granada city, quickly put down, and in the following year to more serious revolts in the mountain villages of the Alpujarra - the region below the Sierra Nevada; Ferdinand himself led an army into the area. There were also revolts in the western parts of the former Kingdom. Suppression by the Catholic forces was severe; in one village (Andarax) they blew up the principal mosque, in which women and children had taken refuge.

The revolt enabled the Catholics to claim that the Muslims had violated the terms of the Treaty of Granada, which were therefore withdrawn. Throughout the region, Moors were thus forced to choose between conversion to Christianity or exile. They became known as "Moriscos" or "New Christians", though many continued to speak Arabic and to wear Moorish clothing.

Interlude
In 1526, Charles I (of Spain - he later became Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor) - issued an Edict under which laws against heresy (e.g. Muslim practices by "New Christians") would be strictly enforced; among other restrictions, it forbade the use of Arabic and the wearing of Moorish dress. The Moriscos managed to get this suspended for forty years by the payment of a large sum (80,000 ducados).

Since now all remaining Moors were officially Christian, mosques could be destroyed or turned into churches. Their children had to be baptised; marriage had to be performed by a priest.

In 1556 Philip II became King, and in 1566 the forty-year suspension of the Edict ran out. It was revised by a "Pragmatica" - even more severe as it required the Moriscos to learn Castilian within three years, after which no-one would be allowed to use Arabic. Moorish names were not to be used; Moorish garments were forbidden. And in 1567 Philip II issued a decree ending all toleration of Moorish culture. He banned the Arabic and Berber languages, prohibited Moorish dress, required Moriscos to adopt Christian names, ordered the destruction of all books and documents in Arabic script, and decreed that Morisco children would be educated only by Catholic priests.

The second rebellion, 1568-71
Philip's harsh approach sparked the outbreak of armed rebellion throughout the former Kingdom of Granada; it is also known as the War of Las Alpujarras. It began in Granada city on Christmas Eve of 1568, but this failed because only a small number of rebels turned up (heavy snowfall in the mountains had prevented others from arriving).

However, Moriscos of Granada, the Alpujarras, and elsewhere, including many who had fled from their villages under Christian rule and become outlaws in the mountains (monfies), secretly assembled in the Valle de Lecrin. They repudiated Christianity, and proclaimed Aben Humeya (born Fernando de Valor, and he claimed descent from the former Umayad dynasty) as their king.

The mountain villages had joined the revolt, burning churches, assassinating priests and other Christians. The Marques of Mondejar led an army into the Alpujarra. In the first major battle, despite difficult terrain, he managed to take control of the Poqueira valley, where Aben Humeya had set up his headquarters. From there, his forces continued through the mountain, taking many villages, rescuing Christians whom the Moriscos had imprisoned in churches.

The war however degenerated into massacres and pillage, with atrocities committed by both sides. In the next year, when the number of rebels had greatly increased, Philip II replaced the Marques of Mondejar - considered too lenient - with his own half-brother John of Austria, with a large force of Spanish and Italian troops. The rebels, divided and disorganised, lost to a ruthless enemy whatever gains they had made. Aben Humeya was assassinated by his own followers and replaced by Aben Aboo. The war came to an end in March 1571, when Aben Aboo in his turn was killed by his own people.

Aftermath
Main article: Expulsion of the Moriscos
After the suppression of the revolt, almost the entire Morisco population was expelled from the former Kingdom of Granada. First rounded up and held in churches, then in harsh winter conditions, with little food, they were taken on foot in groups, escorted by soldiers; many died on the way. Many went to Cordova, others to Toledo and as far as Leon. Those from the Almería region were taken in galleys as far as Seville. The total number expelled has been estimated at some 80,000.

In the rural areas, the exiled Moriscos were partially replaced with Christian settlers brought in from other parts of Spain, even as far away as Galicia. These settlers, lacking experience of mountain farming, had a difficult time, and some gave up. Some villages were abandoned. While the Morisco population of the Alpujarra can be estimated at some 40,000 before the revolt, the population by the end of the century was probably only about 7,000.

In ordering the dispersal of the Moriscos to other parts of the country, Philip had expected that this would fragment the Morisco community and accelerate their assimilation into the Christian population. However, the Moriscos from Granada actually had some influence on the local Moriscos who had until then become more assimilated. Nevertheless, in 1609 King Philip III ordered the expulsion of Moriscos from everywhere in Spain; most ended in North Africa as their final destination, others avoided expulsion or managed to return.

http://research.omicsgroup.org/index.php/Morisco_rebellions_in_Granada


Spain’s Forgotten Muslims – The Expulsion of the Moriscos

One of the truly tragic events in Islamic history is the loss of al-Andalus, or Muslim Spain. For centuries, the Iberian Peninsula was a Muslim land with Muslim rulers and a Muslim population. At its height, Iberia had over 5 million Muslims, a majority of the land’s people. Muslim rulers built an advanced civilization based on faith and knowledge. In the 900s, the capital of Muslim Spain, Cordoba, had paved roads, hospitals, and street lights throughout the city. At the time, Christian Europe’s largest library had only 600 books, while Cordoba’s calligraphers were producing 6000 books per year. The society was a peaceful mixture of European and African cultures, represented by Muslims, Jews, and Christians living in harmony side by side.

This almost utopian society did not last forever. As the so-called Reconquista, or Reconquest, of Spain by Catholic monarchs progressed through the 11th to the 15th centuries, Spain’s Muslims became a marginalized group. In 1492, when the last Muslim state of Iberia, Granada, fell, Spain’s Muslims faced a new reality: genocide.

Occupation

After the fall of Granada in 1492, most Muslims expected it to be a small setback. They thought Muslim armies from Africa would soon come to redeem the loss of Granada and re-establish a Muslim state. The new Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, had other plans, however.


They made their religious intentions clear early on. In March 1492, Spain’s monarchs signed an edict that effectively forced every last Jew out of the country. Hundreds of thousands of Jews were forced out, with the Ottoman Empire accepting many of them. Sultan Bayezid II of the Ottoman Empire sent his entire navy to Spain to pick them up and bring them to Istanbul, in order to avoid the mass killing that awaited them in Spain.

The Spanish policy towards the Muslims was not much different. In 1492, there were about 500,000 Muslims throughout Spain. The Catholic Church made it a priority to convert them all to Christianity now that they did not have the protection of a Muslim state.

The first attempts to convert Muslims to Christianity was through bribery. Converts were showered with gifts, money, and land. This approach proved to be unsuccessful, as most of these “converts” quickly returned to Islam after getting such gifts.


Rebellion

When it became clear in the closing years of the 1400s, that the Muslims of Spain were more attached to their beliefs than to wealth, Spain’s rulers took a new approach. In 1499, Francisco Jimenez de Cisernos, a cardinal in the Catholic Church was sent to southern Spain to “speed up” the conversion process. His approach was to harass the Muslims until they converted. All manuscripts written in Arabic were burned (except for medical ones). Muslims who refused to convert were arbitrarily sent to prison. They were tortured and had their property confiscated in an attempt to convince them to convert. This was all part of Cisernos’ policy that “if the infidels [Muslims] couldn’t be attracted to the road of salvation, they had to be dragged to it.”

His oppression and harassment soon had unintended consequences for Spain’s Christian kings. Spain’s Muslims, in order to resist the oppression began an open rebellion. Granada’s Muslims especially openly protested in the streets and threatened to overthrow the oppressive Catholic rule and replace it with a new Muslim state. Spain’s king and queen quickly intervened along with Cisernos. They gave Granada’s rebels a choice – conversion or death. Almost all of Granada’s citizens chose to convert on the outside, but secretly kept Islam as their true religion.


In 1502, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella officially made Islam illegal throughout Spain

In the countryside, the Muslim towns throughout Granada rose in revolt. They took refuge in the rocky Alpujarras Mountains in Southern Spain, making it difficult for the Christian authorities to root them out. The rebels had no clear plan nor one central leader. They were united in their belief in Islam and resistance to Christian rule.

Since almost all of the population of Granada was Muslim, the rebellion took a defensive form. Christian soldiers regularly attacked Muslim towns in an attempt to force its residents into conversion. The Muslim rebels, not as well equipped or trained as the Christian soldiers, were not always able to rebel the attacks. Massacres and forced conversions of villages were common.


By 1502, the rebellion had petered out and Queen Isabella officially declared an end to toleration for any and all Muslims in Spain. Thus, all Muslims had to officially convert to Christianity, leave Spain, or die. Many did in fact flee to North Africa or fight to the death. However, most officially converted to Christianity, while still keeping their true beliefs hidden.


In Hiding

Spain’s Muslim population went underground in 1502. They had to hide their faith and actions from the Spanish authorities to avoid being killed. These “converted” Muslims were known as Moriscos by the Spanish, and they were intently watched.


Spanish government officials placed strict restrictions on the Moriscos to try to make sure they were not still secretly practicing Islam, which many were of course doing. Moriscos had to leave the doors to their homes open on Thursday nights and Friday mornings, so soldiers can pass by and look in to make sure they were not bathing, as Muslims are supposed to do before the congregational prayer of Friday. Any Muslim caught reading the Quran, or making wudu (ablution) could be immediately killed. For this reason, they were forced to find ways to practice their religion in secret, constantly in fear of being found.


Even under such difficult circumstances, the Moriscos retained their beliefs for decades. While the community activities of Islam such as congregational prayer, alms giving, and pilgrimage to Makkah were restricted, they were able to continue to practice in secret.


Final Expulsion

Despite the best efforts of the Moriscos to conceal their practice of Islam, the Christian kings suspected them of continued adherence to Islam. In 1609, over 100 years after the Muslims went into hiding, King Phillip of Spain signed an edict expelling all Moriscos from Spain. They were given only 3 days to completely pack up and board ships destined for North Africa or the Ottoman Empire.


During this time, they were constantly harassed by Christians, who would loot their belongings and kidnap Muslim children to raise as Christians. Some Moriscos were even killed for sport on their way to the coast by soldiers and regular people. Even when they got to the ships that would take them to their new lands, they were harassed. They were insultingly expected to pay their own fare in their exile. Also, many of the sailors raped, killed, and stole from the Moriscos they were carrying on their ships. This example religious intolerance can effectively be classified as a genocide and terrorism. The Spanish government made very clear their desire to harass and make life miserable for Spain’s Muslims as they were on their way out.


In this environment, however, the Moriscos were finally able to be open about their practice of Islam again. For the first time in over 100 years, Muslims prayed openly in Spain. The adhan (call to prayer) rang in the mountains and plains of Spain once again, as its Muslims were on their way out of their homeland.

Spain’s Muslims were given 3 days to leave their homes and board ships destined for foreign lands in 1609.


Most of the Moriscos wished they could stay in Spain. It had been their homeland for centuries and they did not know how to live in any other land. Even after their exile, many tried to sneak back into Spain and come back to their former homes. These efforts were almost always failures.


By 1614 every last Morisco was gone, and Islam disappeared from the Iberian Peninsula. Going from over 500,000 people to zero in 100 years can only be described as a genocide. Indeed, the Portuguese Dominican monk, Damian Fonseca, referred to the expulsion as an “agreeable Holocaust”. The effects on Spain were grave. Its economy suffered greatly, as a large part of the labor force was gone, and tax revenues dropped. In North Africa, Muslim rulers attempted to provide for the hundreds of thousands of refugees, but in many cases, were unable to do much to help them. The Moriscos of North Africa spent centuries trying to assimilate into society, but still kept their unique Andalusian identity.


To this day, neighborhoods in major North African cities boast of their Morisco identities and keep alive the memory of Muslim Spain’s glorious past. They remind us of the illustrious history of the Iberian Peninsula, as well the tragic story of their expulsion from their homes in the one of the greatest genocides Europe has ever seen.

http://lostislamichistory.com/spains-forgotten-muslims-the-expulsion-of-the-moriscos/