Battle Report #13 - Battle of Jhelum/Hydaspes 326 BC

[AUSTERLITZ]

Battle Of Hydaspes 326 BC - Alexander in India​

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BACKGROUND - Alexander to the Ends of the Earth.

To the ancient greeks ,India(indus derived from sanskrit sindhu)marked the eastern edge of the world - The ends of the earth .On the western extremity was the pillars of hercules(gibraltar in spain) beyond which lay the great western ocean,the eastern bound of this great ocean that surrounded the whole earth lay in india -the distant corner of asia(derived from hittite word assuwha).



According to greek myth,Dionysus -the greek god of wine and ecstasy was brought up in the east and wandered for several years in india.Hercules was said to have failed in his indian expedition.Moreover,Darius had conquered a small part of the western subcontinent near gandhara and this also gave alexander a legitimate cause to advance into the region -as he had replaced the 'King of kings' as ruler of the erstwhile persian empire.The thought of trumping herakles and going into the unknown to do the impossible yet again drove alexander,now proclaimed son of a god, eastwards.

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India on the eve of Alexander's Invasion -



(Alexander's route to india.Having overran the persian empire,Macedonians struck with lightning speed in central asia,crushing the dangerous rebellion there under the satrap bessus and secured the southern syr darya valley with the river jaxartes [u can see the j visible in map -above the river oxus]marking the northern limit of the empire -then they swung south and erupted into afghanisthan through the hindu kush)


(Alexander married Roxanne,the sogdian princess during his central asian conquests.)

By 327 BC,Alexander was ready.Having secured the persian empire,crossed the hindu kush and put down revolts in bactra as well as defeating a scythian incursion at jaxartes(Battle of Jaxartes) -the veteran macedonian forces were now poised for the new campaign.


India as a whole consisted of three parts:

• the valley of the Indus in the west, which can be subdivided into three parts:
  • Gandhara, the valley of the river Cophen (modern Kabul) and the western part of the Punjab, which had, during the reign of Darius I, been part of the Achaemenid empire but consisted in 326 of several small principalities, such as Taxila and Massaga etc.
  • the eastern Punjab, the kingdom of Porus (Pauravas);
  • the lower valley of the Indus, called Sindhu.(Modern day sindh)
• the valley of the Ganges in the east. This was the powerful kingdom of Magadha; its capital was Pataliputra, modern Patna.Ruled by the Nanda empire.Beyond them the Gangaridai kingdom on the mouth of the ganges.(modern bengal roughly) and Kalinga (modern orissa possibly).According to some gangardai and kalinga were an united one kingdom [as they are said to possess very large numbers of war elephants which small states couldn't maintain]
  
• the deep south, also known as Pandava.Ruled by several deccan kingdoms.

The map of asia at alexander's death.The indus valley area here is in alexander's domain.But u can see the gangaridai,the nandas and the southern kingdoms.


Next: The Armies and the road to Hydaspes. The Campaign begins.

 

[Koovie]

Great beginning and very interesting battle! Looking forward to more!

 

[Khan_patriot]

Nice one mate....

 

[AUSTERLITZ]

THE MACEDONIAN ARMY -


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The Macedonian war machine was the creation of Philip the one-eyed ,father of Alexander.The latest innovations in weapons and tactics were adopted and refined by Philip II, and he created a uniquely flexible and effective army. By introducing military service as a full-time occupation, Philip was able to drill his men regularly, ensuring unity and cohesion in his ranks. In a remarkably short time, this led to the creation of one of the finest military machines of the ancient world from what was a second-rate power.2 things aided philip in the creation of his army - macedonia was naturally prosperous with a large manpower base and he acquired the gold mines of Mt.Pangeos[by a combination of force and treachery] that allowed him of all the states of greece to maintain a large permanent standing army.The conquests of Alexander would have been impossible without the army his father created.

INFANTRY -

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HEAVY INFANTRY : PHALANX BATTALIONS - THE PHEZHETAIROI

The core of the macedonian infantry was composed of several phalanx battalions .One of the most imitated and succesful military formations in history,this again was the brain child of philip.

Birth of the Phalanx - When philip came to the throne of macedonia,she was near bankrupt and under constant threat of illyrian invasion who regularly pillaged the country.Indeed the last king had fallen in battle with them.At this time,Hoplites and peltasts dominated infantry warfare in greece.But new trends were emerging with Epaminondas's use of the oblique order and deep phalanx at leuctra to break spartan power.Philip II spent much of his youth as a hostage at Thebes, where he studied closely Epaminondas and Pelopidas, whose reforms were the basis for a good part of Philip's tactics. Philip II improved on these military innovators by using both Epaminondas' deeper phalanx and Iphicrates' combination of a longer spear and smaller and lighter shield.However, the introduction of the sarissa pike and a smaller shield seem to have been innovations devised by Philip himself.
Philip faced a critical problem.He didn't have the funds to issue his hastily raised armies to defend macedonia from invasion with heavy armour,without which success in close combat was doubtful.Another was that these hastily drilled armies couldn't be taught complex manuevering at once,it would take time.He dealt with both these problems ingeneously by removing the need for close combat at all by lengthening the traditional hoplite spear into a huge pike or sarissa that could outreach and enemy and hold him at bay.A sarissa pikeman could do with light or no armour and still come out on top in a head on fight.He also designed the phalanx to concentrate on moving forwards,rather than complex manuevering thus making it easier for the levies to get accustomed to it.The macedonian phalanx had been born.

Organization of the Phalanx -



These soldiers fought in close-ranked rectangular or square formations, of which the smallest tactical unit was the 256 men strong syntagma or speira. Six Syntagmas formed a phalanx battalion or Taxies of 1536 men.One Taxies was levied from each of the districts across macedon.It formed one of the first permanent standing armies in history.(an earlier example would be assyrians).This formation typically fought eight or sixteen men deep and in a frontage of thirty-two or sixteen men accordingly. Each file of 16 men, a lochos. was commanded by a Lochagos who was in the front rank. Junior officers, one at the rear and one in the centre, were in place to steady the ranks and maintain the cohesion of the formation, similar to modern-day NCOs. The commander of the syntagma theoretically fought at the head of the extreme far-right file.A syntagma was accompanied by five additional individuals to the rear: a herald (to act as a messenger), a trumpeter (to sound out commands), an ensign (to hold the unit's standard), an additional officer (called ouragos), and a servant. This array of both audial and visual communication methods helped to make sure that even in the dust and din of battle orders could still be received and given. Six syntagmata formed a taxis of 1,500 men commanded by a strategos, six taxeis formed a phalanx under a phalangiarch.These infantrymen were called Phezhetairoi — the Foot Companions — and made up the dreaded Macedonian phalanx.Six phalanx battalions accompanied Alexander on his invasion of persia,six remaining behind with antipater in macedon.After Sparta's final defeat at Megalopolis,one of the taxies from macedon was sent as reinforcement and arrived in time for the indian campaign.



A macedonian pikeman.One of the innovations by philip was the light shield that could be slung around the soldier's shoulder from his neck.This freed up both hands for the heavy 2 handed 18 foot pike to be wielded effectively.In combat the rear members of the phalanx held their spears up to deflect missiles.See the curved close quarter Kopis blade ,this weapon which bears close resemblance to the iberian falcata originated possibly with the etruscans or the spartans and was introduced in the indian subcontinent by the macedonians.The modern Nepalese kukri and the turkish yataghan are direct derivatives of this.



Macedonian phalangite in linothorax medium armour.Comparatively light armour allowed macedonian armies to force march incredible distances on average 40 miles a day and baffle their enemies.This was made possible by the regular drilling and marching and annual exercises that philip had introduced and would serve alexander in good stead.See on the march the pike could be folded in 2.On the opposite end is a counter weight which could also act as a substitute spear point if the original broke.(not easily,being made of hardended ashwood)On the extreme right u can see the relative heights of the phalangite in comparison with his weapon.

In total,The Macedonian pike, the sarissa, gave its wielder many advantages both offensively and defensively.Defensively it could hold the enemy at bay presenting an impenetrable barrier of pikes,or offensively relentlessly push an enemy back using their longer reach acting as an advancing forest of spears.Frontally invincible its vulnerabilities lay in its inability to change direction quickly,open flanks and poor close combat ability of the phalangites.
Through extensive drilling and training, the Foot Companions of alexander were able to execute complex manoeuvres well beyond the reach of most contemporary armies.[something later phalanxes were unable to do] The sound of myriads of pikes moving though the air in unison, as they were deployed, was said to be most impressive, and very demoralising to the ears of enemy troops.In both persia and greece,the phalanx had proved irresistable and indeed would remain unchallenged till the coming of the roman legion.Under Alexander however it was meant to be one element of a combined arms force -the anvil to his cavalry's hammer.To fix the enemy body in place with the phalanx and allow wedges of companions to slash through his ranks at designated weak points and assault him from flank and rear,crushing them in between the phalanx and cavalry.Alexander usually campaigned his whole career with a core body of around 10,000 phalangites.

HEAVY INFANTRY : THE HYPASPISTS -



The elite of the macedonian foot infantry.These were organized into chiliarchies of 1000 men. There were always 3 chiliarchies for 3000 hypaspists.No more no less.They were never broken down into formations of less than 1000 men to preserve their versitality and superb combat potential.They were a sort of ancient age commando-troop.They could perform nearly every function.Fight as phalangites in a phalanx alongside the regular battalions(as they did at hydaspes),skirmish as peltasts or light infantry,fight in loose order as sword armed assault infantry in sieges or broken terrain,or serving as a running link between the cavalry and infantry(as at gaugamela).They endured far more extensive and rigorous training than the regular foot.Incredibly fit and swift,they could keep up with the cavalry by running on foot!One chiliarchy of 1000 men served as the king's personal bodyguard or the Agema.Seleucus,later founder of the seleucid empire led the hypaspists at Hydaspes.



(Here a hypaspist in action possibly during a siege.The unworthy succesors of the hypaspists -the silver shields made and unmade kings in the wars of the diadochi among Alexander's generals following his death)

HEAVY INFANTRY : ALLIED GREEK HOPLITES



Alexander was supplied with substantial contingents of hoplites by the greek states allied or subjected to him.These were outclassed by the macedonian phalanx but could deal with any other contemporary infantry force on equal or better terms.They fought in the traditional hoplite phalanx.Alexander mostly used them as garrisons.At hydaspes most of them seems to have played a secondary role in craterus's diversionary force.

AGEMA - THE BODYGUARD

The actual bodyguard of alexander was drawn from the ranks of the elite hypaspists and the elite companion cavalry.1 chiliarchy of 1000 hypaspists and the royal Ille of 300 companion heavy cavalry formed the agema bodyguard.Philip used them as a final reserve for desperate situations.Alexander had no use for reserves and deployed them alongside their respective arms.

NEXT: THE LIGHT INFANTRY

 

[AUSTERLITZ]

THE LIGHT INFANTRY -

PELTASTS-

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Peltasts formed the bulk of alexander's light infantry.Peltasts carried a crescent-shaped wicker shield called pelte (Latin: peltarion) as their main protection, hence their name.These were javelin hurling light infantry who could by dint of their lack of armour easily outrun heavy infantry.They were introduced in greek warfare during the peloponessian wars to devastating effect against the slow heavy infantry hoplite armies.



The peltasts throw their javelins into the phalanx, but their lack of armour means that they can evade any attempt by the hoplites to bring them to battle. They can continue to wear down the phalanx with impunity.They also acted as a screen in front of the heavy infantry phalanx in alexander's army.By the time of alexander peltasts were a common feature of all greek armies and almost all mercenaries were peltatsts.The original peltasts were thracians,but later all javelin light infantry came to be symbolized by this term.In alexander's army,most of the peltasts were mercenaries.About 1000 were the savage thracian peltasts.



To the right is a thracian peltast.U can see him fitted out in typical thracian attire and armed for close combat with the national weapon of thrace - the deadly inverted curved slashing blade called the falx.This weapon would give the romans troubles to no end during their campaigns in dacia 400 yrs later.Thrace,an area N-E of macedon supplied excellent peltasts and medium cavalry for the macedonian armies.



The romphaia,a variation of the falx.These sickle like weapons imparted enough downward or sideways slashing power to cut through shields.

Agrianian Javelineers -

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In terms of equipment agrianian javelineers differed little from the other peltasts,but they formed the elite light infantry of alexander's army.Agrianines were a tribe of mixed thracian-paeonian origin situated to the north of macedon between illyria to the west and thrace to the east.[modern day serbia and south bulgaria]They were allied to macedon from the times of philip.Alexander gave them right to self rule and ample share of booty,earning their total trust and faith.Crack javelin-throwers, they were some of alexander's most fanatically loyal infantry.The agranian tribe remained allied to macedon till its incorporation into the roman dominion.
The main speciality of the agrianines was their climbing skills.These mountain men were expert loose order assault troops and were grouped together with the hypaspists.Their commander was Attalus.They numbered from 1000-2000.

CRETAN ARCHERS -

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Cretan archers were famed military soldiers in the ancient mediterranean world. They were widely recognized as among the best archers in the world for a number of years, and as such found employment as mercenaries in many armies from times much earlier than alexander's time.They commanded a degree of respect from even the spartans,reknowned-despisers of archery.They served in the macedonian armies throughout alexander's campaigns and that of the diadochi wars.Rome employed cretan archers as auxillaries throughout the republic and empire period.They were still being used during the byzantine era.The cretan composite bow was geared towards armour piercing rather than range.
Their skill with the bow was equaled or exceeded by no other except the famed archers of syria.Alexander's army had perhaps 2000 cretan archers.(not all were ethnically cretan-perhaps half were cretan and half macedonians trained in cretan style)

NEXT: CAVALRY-TACTICS-SIEGE EQUIPMENT

 

[shuntmaster]

Porus


King Porus
King Porus (पौरुष), the Greek version of the Indian names Puru, Pururava, or Parvata, was the ruler of a Kingdom in Punjab located between the Jhelum and the Chenab (in Greek, the Hydaspes and the Acesines) rivers in the Punjab. Its capital may have been near the current city of Lahore . He had 600 small republics under him, which were ruled by Jats. Porus was most powerful of them.

Unlike his neighbour, Ambhi (in Greek: Omphius), the King of Taxila, Porus chose to fight Alexander the Greek invader in order to defend his kingdom and honour of the people.

Porus fought the battle of the Hydaspes River with Alexander in 326 BC. After he was defeated by Alexander, in a famous meeting with Porus - who had suffered many arrow wounds in the battle and had lost his sons, who all chose death in battle rather than surrender - Alexander reportedly asked him, "how he should treat him". Porus replied, "the way one king treats another". Alexander the Great was so impressed by the brave response of King Porus that he restored his captured Kingdom back to him and gave addition lands of a neighbouring area whose ruler had fled.

Porus was said to be "5 cubits tall", either the implausible 7½ ft (2.3 m) assuming an 18-inch cubit, or the more likely 6 ft (1.8 m) if a 14-inch Macedonian cubit was meant.

Death
Indian sources record that Parvata was killed by mistake by the Indian ruler Rakshasa, who was trying to assassinate Chandragupta instead.

Greek tradition however records that he was assassinated, sometime between 321 and 315 BC, by the Thracian general Eudemus (general), who had remained in charge of the Macedonian armies in the Punjab:

"From India came Eudamus, with 500 horsemen, 300 footmen, and 120 elephants. These beasts he had secured after the death of Alexander, by treacherously slaying King Porus" Diodorus Siculus XIX-14
After his assassination, his son Malayketu ascended the throne with the help of Eudemus. However, Malayketu was killed in the Battle of Gabiene in 317 BC.

Jat Gotras from Porus

• Paraswal
• Poras
• Purwar
• Phour

 

[asad71]

Thank you AUSTERLITZ, but I hope you would follow Napoleon into Egypt, his Peninsular wars, invasion of Russia where he was more than matched by Tsar Alexander I, battle of Leipzig against theTsar who led a winning coalition, and finally his Waterloo where he met and was defeated by the Sepoy Gen.

 

[AUSTERLITZ]

CAVALRY

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HEAVY CAVALRY - THE COMPANION CAVALRY

The Creame De' la Creame of the macedonian army,the elite companion cavalry was the decisive mounted assault force that decided nearly all of alexander's battles,and with whom he placed himself and rode into combat with.They have been regarded as the best heavy cavalry of the ancient world and the first true shock cavalry of history.Another creation of Philip,who sought to use them as the hammer to his phalanx's anvil.
The Hetairoi could be members of the Macedonian aristocracy or commoners of any Greek origin who enjoyed the trust and friendship of the Macedonian regent.

Armed with a 8-10ft Xyston lance,a cuirass,a boetian helmet,greaves and a modified kopis or machaira (literally meat chopper)for close combat.Superbly trained and a crack veteran force, they used the best weapons and rode the best horses.They used the lance for shock action- very unusual at this time without stirrups(first used by the goths at adrianopole in 378 AD and introduced in general in europe by the huns),and also charged at the gallop.Both these features signified a very high standard of training.

Organization -

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The Macedonian cavalry were organized into squadrons of 200 horse called Ile.3-4 such squadrons making up a hipparchy or cavalry regiment.(The above picture depicts 8 ille as part of one hipparchy,this is symbolic.These 8 squadrons were the original 1800 companions alexander set out with on his invasion of persia -and thus this 'hipparchy' in the diagram signifies the whole of the companion cavalry regiment)

The royal Ile was 300-400 men in strength and was included in the Basilikon Agema (King's guard).This was the unit where alexander placed himself.Alexander set out on his invasion.By hydaspes with reinforcements the total numbers of companions had risen to perhaps 3000.Also several persian nobles had been included with their entourage as part of the cavalry.4 hipparchies are given as number-but we don't know how many of them were present at hydaspes or the role played by them.[A part of the whole macedonian invasion force was away while hydaspes was being fought]

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The Squadrons or Ile were subdivided into Tetarchies of 49 men which were the actual blocks that charged in wedge formation.Each squadron had 2 officers - each officer in charge of 2 tetrachies.

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Advantages accorded by the wedge formation.Philip adopted this from the thracians after fighting their cavalry.


HEAVY CAVALRY - THE THESSALIAN CAVALRY

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Thessaly,Macedonia's neighbour and ally to the south was excellent horse country -and reknowned for its horsemen.Man to man the thessalian cavalry were nearly as good as the companions.Their equipment was identical.While the companions performed an offensive role on the right flank,the thessalians usually protected the left in a defensive role.They used a rhomboid formation.They were led at Jhelum by possibly Coenus.Numbered around 2000.

MEDIUM CAVALRY - THE PERSIAN CAVALRY

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After Alexander's conquest of persia,he took into his service large numbers of oriental cavalry.Many of the persian nobles with their contingents joining him.Equipped with scale armour,short spears,javelins,bows and axes.Outclassed by the companions,they were still far superior to alexander's greek allied cavalry.Exact numbers present at hydaspes are unknown.

MEDIUM CAVALRY - THE THRACIAN CAVALRY

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Thracian horsemen in the foreground.Recruited from thrace,these fierce cavalrymen served alexander well throughout his campaigns.Numbered possibly around 1000.


LIGHT CAVALRY - STEPPE HORSE ARCHERS

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The deadliest component of Alexander's light cavalry were a 1000 man division of Scythian and Dahae horse archers.Recruited during his central asian campaign - these steppe predators were lethal bowmen and their hit and run attacks could grind down,demoralize and disorganize even a most determined entrenched foe.

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Armed with little else but their deadly composite bows,they were to play a crucial role at jhelum.

LIGHT CAVALRY - ALLIED GREEK CAVALRY AND MACEDONIAN SCOUTS

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The lower tier of the macedonian cavalry was composed of allied greek cavalry which were generally of poor quality.And also macedonian scouts - the Prodromoi and the Sarissophoroi.These were without armour but used a shorter sarissa from horseback.They functioned as light lancers.Used for reconssaince,as bait(as at granicus and jaxartes) or simply secondary troops.There were a considerable number of them but had limited battlefield functions.

Next: Tactics - Siege Train

Thank you AUSTERLITZ, but I hope you would follow Napoleon into Egypt, his Peninsular wars, invasion of Russia where he was more than matched by Tsar Alexander I, battle of Leipzig against theTsar who led a winning coalition, and finally his Waterloo where he met and was defeated by the Sepoy Gen.

I will cover the whole napoleonic wars eventually.But czar alexander's role was minimal.Kutuzov's cunning and napoleon's ego deserves most of the credit.Along with a little help from platov's cossacks.I might do egypt after finishing some of the more major campaigns.

 

[Omega007]

THANX AUSTERLITZ for this great read.I was wondering while you are compiling Battle of Hydaspes,can you also write about the armies of contemporary Nanda and Gangaridai empires,their inventory,orbat etc and what might have been the outcome in your opinion had both sides clashed??

 

[AUSTERLITZ]

MACEDONIAN SIEGE EQUIPMENT
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The Macedonians had developed their siege tactics under Philip. What had made the macedonian army so fearsome was its ability to conduct the successful capture of even the most impregnable positions.This was apparent throughout the persian and greek campaigns and would be in india.Alexander has been described as the 'greatest besieger of history'. This was a dramatic shift from earlier warfare, where Greek armies had lacked the ability to conduct an effective assault on the enemy stronghold despite defeating his army on the field. For instance, during the Peloponessian war, the Spartans were never able to take Athens despite easily conquering her surrounding territory.The dramatic change in the abilities of Greeks to operate against fortifications owed much to the development of effective artillery. This had begun around 400 BC in Syracuse under Dionysius I for its wars against carthage.

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For this purpose they had developed the Gastraphates,essentially hand held large crossbows and used them to good effect.It would take several decades before the rest of the Greek world would know what the Sryacusans had invented, it is said that the first greek outside of Syracuse to see a Gastraphetes was King Archidamos II of Sparta,Syracuse's ally against Athens who said when he saw it “O Herakles (Hercules)! This is the end of the valour of men!''

After this first artillery piece there came even more as other Greek engineers sought to expand and surpass the Gastraphetes. From the Gastraphetes there comes two distinct branches of artillery, torsion and non-torsion, until the arrival of gunpowder in Europe the torsion artillery was the most powerful.

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The first artillery piece to be invented as an immediate result of the Gastraphetes was the Oxybeles, which is Greek for “bolt shooter”. The Oxybeles was invented in 375 BC as a heavy base mounted weapon, it had the ability of being able to pierce most shields and armor up to a range of 400 meters, because of this the Greeks named all weapons of this type as katapeltes, Greek for shield piercer, this is where we get our word catapult.

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The next step up in artillery technology was the Lithobolos, which first appeared around 335 B.C. Larger versions of the Lithobolos were called the Palintonon or Ballista.These were torsion powered engines and superior to the earlier designs.These improved catapults were first used in mass by the phocians against philip,handing him his 2 ever defeats.Macedonia responded by getting more and better ones of their own and philip's engineering marvels were dreaded throughout greece.Alexander's army included 2 types - The Oxybeles and the Lithobolos.Apart from these specially designed battering rams and siege towers were also a common feature of macedonia's siege train.All these would frequently be in action in the indian campaign.The art of siege engineering reached its zenith under the romans.

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Covered battering Ram.The sloped protected roofs spoil any boiling oil attack from the city walls.Underneath the protection of the cover rams can proceed with the men given a large amount of protection from enemy archers.

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Macedonian Siege Tower.These ominous mobile structures would be wheeled into position at the level of the city walls.Covered by hide as protection against fire projectiles.The slits in the body of the tower contain catapults and archers for ranged support.Inside are the assault troops .

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How the assault troops were lowered with a ramp onto the top of the walls,the preliminary step to taking the city.When on the march these could be disassembled and carried in parts.Or be transported by the navy,when moving close to the coastal route or through a large river.

TACTICS - ​

The macedonian army was designed to act as a combined arms force with each specialized component synergizing with the other for optimum results.The basic macedonian battle array was typical, though variations were made according to battlefield conditions.

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Main body of the Phalanx Battalions formed up in the centre.Screened by light infantry-peltasts and archers.On the right flank is the elite companion cavalry meant to deliver the knockout blow.The elite hypaspists form the link between the phalanx and the companions.They are supported by light infantry -mostly the agrianians and thracians.Some light cavalry on 2 wings.On the left flank is the thessalian cavalry deployed in a defensive role,also supported by light infantry.Alexander places himself with the companions.

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The companions rout the enemy cavalry on the left wing,then swing and assault his flank.While the phalanx advances and pins him down from the front.The macedonian left wing cavalry bends its line into a defensive front.

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Popularly known as Hammer and Anvil tactics,The companions are the hammer and the phalanx is the anvil.The enemy is crushed in between.Note the phalanx advances in oblique order so as to concentrate its attack on the point of the enemy line that is to be attacked by the companions from the flank or rear.The rest of its flank is refused to delay coming in contact with the enemy on that side.This oblique order attack was used against numerically superior enemies to gain local parity or superiority.
The hypaspists,light cavalry of the right flank and agrianians all exploit the breakthrough created by the companions in the enemy line and also cover the phalanx's exposed flank.

NEXT-THE PAURAVA ARMY -INDIAN TACTICS

 

[AUSTERLITZ]

THE PAURAVA ARMY - ​

The Kingdom of Porus or Puru,was the most prominent of the small petty kingdoms of the indus valley on the eve of alexander's invasion.The pauravas are an ancient ancestry,claiming descent from the moon itself! (Chandravanshi).They are said to be descended from one king Yayati,whose 2 sons Yadu and Puru are originators of the yadav(of whom krishna is most reknowned) and the Paurava bloodlines.The paurava lineage thus pre-dates even the mahabharata times.This meant that while in comparison of resources at one's disposal,alexander was in a totally different league to porus,in terms of heritage- Puru was every bit as proud as the supposed son of Zeus and the descendant of Achilles.

The Soldier Types -

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Data on ancient indian armies are scarce with Kautilya's arthshastra and Megasthenes's Indica providing valuable information.
Above is a general representation of mauryan armies of the same period.Not all of these applicable to puru's armies due to difference in resource availability.

Indian infantry of this era used 5 types of weapons - Heavy Metal Clubs/maces(Gada),Bows,Swords,Axes and spears.Of these, Swordsmen were the top tier as iron was precious.

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The kshatriya warrior caste would be most likely to use Maces and swords and be equipped with iron scale armour.(Corresponding to mauryan swordsmen in the above picture.)The indian mercenaries would also be reasonably well equipped in terms of weapons and armour.Indeed these mercenaries proved formidable opponents throughout the indian campaign.For a small kingdom like porus the bulk of the infantry would be levies -spearmen,bowmen and axemen with no armour.[u can see all in pic]Mostly clad in a loincloth and headress along with their respective weapons.
Only magadha by virtue of her fabulous wealth(Centred on the fertile gangetic basin - An empire's wealth being directly proportional to amount of land revenue and also in command of the riverine gangetic trade as well as the trade with S-E Asia) plus possesing abundant copper and Iron mines could afford to equip the whole of her vast standing army with iron weapons and armour (as described by megasthenes) and still have more left for export.

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The Indian bowmen would have formed a large part of porus's army.The Bamboo longbow was known for its penetrating power and range,but at hydaspes they were to disappoint.This was because the rains loosened the tension in the bowstrings and more significantly the archers found it difficult to brace their bows in the muddy terrain.(longbows required stable base)

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Indian Levy infantryman with a khanda sword.The khanda was blunt tip double edged broadsword indigeneous to india.A prestigious weapon, not many levy infantry would have access to them.Curved bladed sabres like the Talwar were not known in india at this time and came with the trurks and arabs.Longswords were introduced by the kushans and sakas.

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Khanda.The original indian sword.It was used solely for slashing and hacking.Dates to vedic times.

Indian infantry didn't fight in close defined drilled formations like the phalanx or the legion.They prefered a more individualistic approach similar to the gauls.The infantry's main role was to support the elephants and exploit gaps created by them,due to the mode of fighting they could easily confront a macedonian soldier in a loose order fighting melee in broken terrain,but would be at a disadvanatge head on against the macedonian phalanx.

Why Lack of Melee Armoured Infantry formations?

As in persia where vast spaces,weather and dominance of cavalry hindered effective development of heavy infantry,in India the elephant dominated.The mere existence of large numbers of elephants discouraged the development of heavily armoured infantrymen in close packed formations -being perfect targets for elephant attacks.The humid hot climate also discouraged large scale use of heavy body armour.

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A Gada or Club.The indian clubs were rather top heavy and required high muscle strength on part of the user.The sheer blunt force trauma inflicted by a strike of such a weapon would likely render armour irrelevant.However they were clumsy objects and required space to wield effectively.

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Above. - A levy spearman,a bowman and standard light cavalry.In terms of cavalry,Porus was not only outnumbered 2 to 1 but also heavily outclassed.The typical indian cavalryman of this age was mostly unarmoured,armed with javelins and short spears.They would be outreached by the larger macedonian xyston spears.Despite this they fought bravely at hydaspes.

Ofcourse,not the whole of the cavalry was such.At least a part of porus's cavalry would be medium cavalry with armour.And the larger kingdoms fielded armoured cavalry in large quantities.These while much better would still be at a disadvantage to the macedonian horsemen who had - better and heavier horses and longer spears.Another factor was difference in doctrine.The macedonian companions were unique for their time in launching frontal boot-to boot massed cavalry charges with lance.

Development of Cavalry in India -
Cavalry developed late in the indian subcontinent .This was due to several factors.Primary being that india was poor horse country.The horse breeds indigeneous to india were inferior than the heavier battle horses bred in central asia and europe.Second again was the primacy of the elephant.Cavalry was expensive,and for kings to maintain both quantities of elephants and cavalry would be a severe drain on finances.Besides elephants were much superior to cavalry head to head,and thus the need for development of this arm was not as keenly felt.True heavy shock cavalry in India emerged with the Guptas who modelled theirs on the kushan and saka cavalry,and there after the gurjara pratiharas-the precursor of the rajputs.In ancient india horsemen from central asia and afghanisthan were sought after as mercenaries.

Thus we see elephants were mixed blessing in hindsight for the Progress of indian warfare,On one hand they acted as the most serious deterrant to an invading army.On the other they retarded the development of the other 2 arms.

The Chariot -

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Chariots.For over a thousand years they had signified power in the ancient era.The main secret behind the military successes of the hittites,the aryans,the egyptians and the early assyrians they were already beginning to fall into obsolescence by the late assyrian empire timeframe -some 300 yrs before alexander.In india chariots were still in vogue ,though long having ceded the place of the decisive battlefield strike weapon to the elephant.But still retained a place in the army.Note indians used traditional chariots-mobile missile platforms,not the scythed chariot variety used by the persians.The chariot’s real strength on the battlefield was the raised firing platform it offered to archers – it was the original “artillery platform.” Archers mounted on a chariot were raised above the battlespace and could see what they were firing at. The chariot-mounted, highly mobile and highly accurate archer was both a tactical weapon and one which could offer very accurate and quite considerable firepower.It was also used for transporting troops and as a command vehicle.

Why chariots became obsolete?

However the vehicle had severe limitations.It could only be used on absolutely flat terrain without obstacles and required multiple horses .And in this lay the seeds of its obsolescence.In the heyday of the chariot,horses had been smaller and weaker.But with evolution newer horse breeds could now carry the weight of a single armoured man on its back.Cavalry also didn't require flat solid terrain to operate and was much more versatile.So why would states maintain chariots that required multiple horses whereas a single cavalryman could do much the same.

At Jhelum,the chariots failed miserably.They were bogged down in the muddy ground and became immobile sitting targets.


The Indian War Elephant -

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The centrepiece of ancient indian warfare was the war elephant.If India was poor in horses,it possesed enormous numbers of war elephants.The asiatic war elephant is the largest breed that can be employed for war.(The african savannah elephant being untameable)Larger than the north african pachyderms used by carthage.These imposing and intimidating beasts were the tanks of the ancient battlefield.They could toss enemy soldiers around with their trunks,mangle them with their tusks or simply trample them under their feet.Elephants also offered elevated firing positions for archers and javelineers.Richer kingdoms would provide armour for their elephants making them even more formidable.Thus they could be employed as mobile fortresses that stopped an enemy dead in its tracks or as a brute force terror weapon to mow through the enemy ranks.Used properly they could be an unstoppable force.

''The destruction of the enemy army mainly depends on elephants.Where there are elephants,there is victory '' - Kautilya
(In the Arthashashtra.)​

Most indian kings directed the battle from elephants.The number of elephants maintained by a king was synonimous with his power.Porus had 85-140 war elephants at jhelum and they presented the most formidable challenge to alexander's army among puru's forces.The nandas maintained 3000-6000 elephants.(though its questionable if this whole number can take the field at once) and mauryas under chandragupta upto 9000.Chandragupta gifted 500 elephants to seleucus later ,which won him the battle at Ipsus and eventually the seleucid empire.

Weakness - The one dangerous flaw of using elephants was that they could easily turn on your own forces.If maddened by injuries or loss of its mahouts an elephant could go berserk and became an equal menace to both sides.

Indian Tactics -


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Indian battlefield tactics rested on stability,security and brute force.A typical battle array would have elephants spread out all over the front of the centre of the army interspersed with infantry[rectangles] for close protection.On the flanks would be the cavalry supported by the chariots[crossed circles].Behind the Elephant line would be the main infantry body.The elephants would wear down an opposing army ,before charging through to create gaps in his line.The main infantry body would then rush through and exploit those gaps.A final reserve force of elephants were kept at the back with the commander(star)

The one weakness of these tactics was that of mobility.Because the cavalry was not of the highest quality,an enemy with superior cavalry could choose the place of attack and dictate the terms of the contest as long as it avoided direct confrontation with the elephnats.Elephants were slow to manuevre and redeploy tactically and also consumed large amounts of fodder which restricted strategic mobility.

Next: Campaign Begins .

 

[scorpionx]

Don't want to break the continuation of this great thread but I must accept that this is the best way to learn History. I have read about this particular battle before but with so many intricate details and pictures my understanding of the subject was half baked. Thank you @AUSTERLITZ for this awesome thread, full of valuable informations. You must have been bored with complements now

By the way, I have not gone through post # 10 yet. Is that seize technique shown in the first picture was applied in Tyre by Alexander?

 

[AUSTERLITZ]

Don't want to break the continuation of this great thread but I must accept that this is the best way to learn History. I have read about this particular battle before but with so many intricate details and pictures my understanding of the subject was half baked. Thank you @AUSTERLITZ for this awesome thread, full of valuable informations. You must have been bored with complements now

By the way, I have not gone through post # 10 yet. Is that seize technique shown in the first picture was applied in Tyre by Alexander?

Thanks mate.And yes it's from Tyre.

THANX AUSTERLITZ for this great read.I was wondering while you are compiling Battle of Hydaspes,can you also write about the armies of contemporary Nanda and Gangaridai empires,their inventory,orbat etc and what might have been the outcome in your opinion had both sides clashed??

U can see a full roster of likely units of the larger empires in the paurava army section,tactics was more or less same.ORBAT is unknown.I'll talk inventory and the debate over the outcome at the conclusion of the thread.

 

[Shabaz Sharif]

Typical, claiming our ancestors as Indians. way to go bhangees.

 

[AUSTERLITZ]

ROAD TO HYDASPES


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Descending from the Hindukush into afghanisthan,alexander in may 327BC Alexander founded the town of Alexandria Ad caucasum.After reorganizing the military administration of the surrounding areas he stockpiled supplies for the upcoming invasion and assembled his forces at Nicea,near modern Kabul.(Note in above map,locations are mostly correct except for nysa-explanation later).Here he recieved embassies from the rulers who were ready to subject themselves to the summons he had earlier issued.Prominent among them was the King of Taxila(father of Omphis).Alexander already had in his service Sisocottus(sashigupta),a indian mercenary captain previously in persian service who had defected after gaugamela where he was present.These two revealed much to alexander about the strengths and political standing of the petty kingdoms and tribal republics in the area.At this point the whole army numbered 120,000 -150,000 including camp followers who constituted a significant portion.Around 50,000 -60,000 were europeans.The rest former elements of the royal persian army.

While descending into the Cophen valley[kabul river valley], Alexander informed his new vassals of his intentions; He planned to spend the rest of the Summer and Autumn in reducing the region in his front up to the river Indus. However, as matters eventuated, he found that the campaign he proposed was going to be far more difficult then he had anticipated.From there, he was going to proceed beyond the Indus and punish the Indian states beyond that river that had not submitted themselves to him ,brought him tribute and recognized him as their new master.

At Nicea, he took the time to split his army into two separate forces with a very specific goal in mind; to retain the advantage of interior lines so that he could reinforce his army at any point should any particular section of his army become threatened during the course of his campaign in the valley of the Cophen. In addition to this, these two forces were to keep the Indians in the region from combining their forces and coordinating against the Macedonians. This is the sign of Alexander's grasp of strategy, especially considering the nature of the topography of the region.

The army that was going to march along the river Cophen was going to be commanded by Perdiccas and Hephaestion.They were going to have the king of Taxila with them so that they had his knowledge of the region at their disposal.They were to proceed along the right, or southern bank, of the Cophen and the forces they were to have at their disposal were - 3 Phalanx battalions under Gorgias,Cleitus the white and Meleager ,half the Companion cavalry and the mercenary cavalry squadrons.(see the southern route taken by this force).Their instructions were as follows; to follow the river as fast as they could to the Indus—reducing all the cities and oppidums to submission on the way—through either systematic reduction or by terms — and immediately build a bridge upon their arrival at the Indus so that when the King arrived and after the winter when the King had wintered his army in the region—as planned—they could proceed to cross the river and punish the tribes across the Indus.

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Hephaestion and Perdiccas -

The southern march didn't meet significant resistance.Moving through the Khyber pass,it took Peucalaotis(Pushkalavati) after brief resistance- North of current Peshwar.

(Charsadda in pic corresponds to Pushkalavati)​

In the Peshawar valley ,most of the tribal chiefs preferred the alternative of submission, but one named Hasti (Astes) ventured to resist. His stronghold, which held out for thirty days, was taken and destroyed.Perdiccas and Hephastion proceeded to set up a bridge over the Indus at Hund and await the main army under Alexander.On the other side of the bridge lay the friendly territory of Taxila.

Alexander in the SWAT valley - The Aspasians

Meanwhile alexander took the other part of the army on the mission he deemed more difficult.Subjugation of the tribes North of the cophen,so that when he entered taxila his LoC would be safe.Here however he was to face bitter resistance.He had with him - half the companion cavalry,four phalanx battalions,the hypaspists(now called the silver shields),the archers and agrianians,the dahae horse archers and mounted lancers(including persian cavalry).The first tribe on his path were the aspasians,they were still mustering their forces near their capital when Alexander with his habitual stunning speed crossed the river and arrived to surprised them with all the cavalry and 800 mounted infantry racing ahead of the main body.The aspasians caught unprepared were driven into their walls.The next day the rest of the army arrived and the siege engines got to work.The siege was brief but hotly contested.A number of the indians managed to escape,but were pursued and savaged by the macedonian cavalry who slew many.Alexander was wounded in the shoulder in the siege and the enraged macedonian soldiers razed the town to the ground.As we shall see,the campaign in this region increasingly took on a genocidal character.The location of this town has not been identified.
Alexander moved on to the next large settlement called Andaca which surrendered. Alexander understood that the best way to control these valleys was to hold the openings and exits with strong garrisons.The macedonian cavalry would thus also be a persistent threat to the livelihood of the people of this areas,who were mostly herders and whose herds they could seize/slaughter with impunity by such measures-.As they were in valleys, there is nowhere they could take these herds in time to escape the vengeance of the Macedonians - thus ensuring their good behaviour.He left his second-in-command Craterus with sizeable garrisons to mop up the neighbouring tribes in the kunar valley region .(see alexander's movements in the early hand drawn map)

He then crossed the mountains and entered the valley now called Bajaur. Alexander's next destination was Euspla where the King of the Aspasians was. At this point, deeming their cause lost, the Aspasians burned this city and fled.In a skirmish between the vanguards an interesting combat took place between Ptolemy, The Aspasian King and Alexander. One of the barbarians with the Aspasian King thrust his spear right through Ptolemy's breast plate, but the spear did not make contact with him due to the armour stopping the severity of the blow. It was at this point that Ptolemy killed the King of the Aspasians himself by thrusting his spear through both of his thigh's. At this point, in a combat between Alexander, Ptolemy and the Aspasian Kings body guard they fought over the corpse of the fallen king.

Moving to Arigaeum which had been burnt and abandoned,Alexander rebuilt the town as a garrison city.At this point Craterus rejoined him,having executed his previous task.Ptolemy on a foraging expedition meanwhile brought news that the surviving aspasians had joined forces with the neighbouring tribes and were assembling for battle nearby.Alexander moved immediately to confront this new threat.

Battle of Arigaeum -

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The Aspasians were deployed on the high ground with a considerable army.Alexander divided his forces into 3 parts.Ptolemy taking up the left, had a third of the hypaspists, the battalions of Philip and Philotas, two squadrons of horse archers(400), the Agrianians and half the other cavalry. Leonnatus was ordered to take up the right flank, with Attalus' and Balacrus' battalions.

Alexander took advantage of the adjoining vegetation to hide these 2 wings and sent them to their respective flanks through a circular route unseen by the aspasians due to the cover of terrain.Meanwhile he led his smaller and greatly outnumbered centre division and approached the main indian force baiting them.Encouraged by their large numerical superiority,these abandoned the high ground and attacked alexander head on.
Ptolemy and Leonnatus now revealed themselves and attacked from both flanks.Ptolemy encountered heavy resistance but Leonnatus broke through.Eventually with their flanks ruptured,the aspasians surrendered.This battle ended the resistance capability of the aspasians.

Visit to Nysa -

After arigeum ,the macedonians reached nysa slightly to the north.An attempt to take the town by assault having failed by reason of the depth of the protecting river, Alexander was preparing to reduce it by blockade when the speedy submission of the inhabitants rendered further operations unnecessary. They are alleged to have craved his clemency on the ground that they were akin to Dionysos and the Greeks, because the ivy and vine grew in their country, and the triple-peaked mountain which overshadowed their town was no other than Mount Meros. Alexander, who found such fancies useful as a stimulant to his homesick troops, did not examine the evidence for the kinship with Dionysos in too critical a spirit, but was glad to accept the Nysaian appeals and to exercise a gracious clemency.The macedonians celebrated and rested in drunken stupor for 10 days before resuming their campaign.(Note location of Nysa is given wrong in hand held map,which places it on perdiccas's route)

Campaign against the Assaceni -

Further east lay the tribal confederation of the Assaceni (Ashwaseni or horse soldiers).They could reportedly muster upto 20,000 infantry,2000 cavalry and 30 elephants though this might be exaggareted.Alexander again advanced rapidly by forced marches giving the tribal chieftains no time to assemble and they dispersed to their respective areas.He then proceeded to besiege Massaga,the capital of the Assaceni.It is identified with modern Chakdara.

Siege of Massaga -

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Massaga was the largest city in the area.The assaceni had hired 7,000 mercenaries from the hinterland beyond the Indus.These professional warriors were soldiers of no common order, and as a result of their presence the Assacenians as well as the mercenaries themselves were confident of victory against the Macedonians.As the macedonians approached ,they were taken aback as the indians instantly came out and attack.Initially caught off guard,Alexander ordered his men to conduct a false withdrawal to a nearby hill.Elated at the enemy retreat,the indians followed with vigour -but lost their cohesion and discipline in the process.Alexander soon launched a counterattack as the cretan archers who were waiting, suddenly poured volley after volley into the onrushing indians.They were followed by the agrianians and the phalanx and drove the indians into the city with 200 killed.However alexander was again injured in the fighting in the calf.

"They may call me son of Zeus, but I suffer none the less like a mortal. This is blood, not ichor!"​

The next day Alexander ordered an assault.This however was beaten back quickly,the mercenaries now proving their worth.
The next day the macedonian battering rams attempted to tear down a section of the walls.However again the veteran mercenaries were alert to the danger and prevented any such attempts from bearing fruit.
Now Alexander ordered a terrace to be built along with a siege tower.This took 9 days to complete.Finally when the siege tower started advancing towards the city walls it must have been an awe-inspiring sight for even the indian mercenaries -who would have seen nothing like it.Macedonian siege machinery were at this point the most advanced in the world,well ahead of the rest.Archers and light infantry were placed to support the assault troops in the siege tower.To their chagrin however,the macedonian assault troops were yet again repulsed with loss by the mercenaries,despite ranged fire support.

[A mercenary swordsman-they offered some of the most bitter resistance to alexander's advance]​

The next day, Alexander ordered that from the tower they extend a bridge and would have the same men who stormed Tyre from the bridges built on the mole to storm the Assacenians. Meanwhile, the archers and slingers would continue to fire as before. However, again the mercenaries put up fierce resistance. While this was going on, Alexander ordered that a unit of elite Hypaspists charge across the bridge at the mercenaries. However, too many of them rushed upon it too quickly and the hastily built bridge collapsed under their weight.Seizing this oppurtunity,the indians fired volleys of missiles at these fallen men,then a furious sally from the side gates got into their midst and cut down a large number of these soldiers.Alexander was eventually able to save a few with a counter attack,but the damage had been done.The loss of the irreplaceable elite hypaspists especially,would have been keenly felt.

Finally on the next day,the macedonians launched another similar attack.During the course of the fighting,a lucky catapult bolt killed the leader of the mercenaries.This incident,along with the decisive numerical superiority enjoyed by the macedonians eventually demoralized the mercenaries who had till then fought with utmost gallantry.They sent envoys to treat for terms.Alexander's conditions for their surrender were as follows; they agree to serve under him and they surrender to him the Massagan King's family as hostages.Conditions were agreed upon and the mercenaries encamped on a nearby hill.

Here 2 versions are presented to us on what happened next.According to one, the mercenaries were unwilling to march over the Indus and fight their fellow Indians and attempted to retreat in the night from their encampment.Upon which alexander enraged at this violation of terms surrounded the hill with his army and attacked them.
The second version goes that Alexander,by now increasingly despotic, was furious over the resistance to his will displayed by these men and the heavy losses they had caused him.Enraged he wished to make an example out them just as he had made an example out of the greek mercenaries at granicus.He thus broke the treaty and suddenly surrounded and assaulted them .

Whatever be the case -the macedonians surrounded the encampment from all sides and attacked the surprised indians who formed up a hollow square with the women and children in the centre.They resisted valiantly in a last stand until outnumbered and encircled they were cut down to the last man.After this the macedonians entered the now near defenceless town of massaga and killed any surviving defenders,wholly violating the treaty.The civilian population was largely spared by the pleadings of the queen.Alexander's conduct in this case has been criticized by historians such as Plutarch and marked a blot on his legacy along with other incidents such as thebes,persepolis and gaza.

The siege of massaga was finally over.It had been a bloody and brutal struggle and the toughest challenge of the indian campaign yet for the macedonian army.Yet greater ones lay ahead.

Next: Aornos - Jhelum

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